CHAPTER XIII

MORAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL LITERATURE

Side by side with the great mass of literature of a magical and religious character that flourished in Egypt under the Ancient Empire, we find that there existed also a class of writings that are remarkably like those contained in the Book of Proverbs, which is attributed to Solomon, the King of Israel, and in "Ecclesiasticus," and the "Book of Wisdom." The priests of Egypt took the greatest trouble to compose Books of the Dead and Guides to the Other World in order to help the souls of the dead to traverse in safety the region that lay between this world and the next, or Dead Land, and the high officials who flourished under the Pharaohs of the early dynasties drew up works, the object of which was to enable the living man to conduct himself in such a way as to satisfy his social superiors, to please his equals, and to content his inferiors, and at the same time to advance to honours and wealth himself. These works represent the experience, and shrewdness, and knowledge which their writers had gained at the Court of the Pharaohs, and are full of sound worldly wisdom and high moral excellence. They were written to teach young men of the royal and aristocratic classes to fear God, to honour the king, to do their duty efficiently, to lead strictly moral, if not exactly religious, lives, to treat every man with the respect due to his position in life, to cultivate home life, and to do their duty to their neighbours, both to those who were rich and those who were poor. The oldest Egyptian book of Moral Precepts, or Maxims, or Admonitions, is that of Ptah-hetep, governor of the town of Memphis, and high confidential adviser of the king; he flourished in the reign of Assa, a king of the fifth dynasty, about 3500 B.C. His work is found, more or less complete, in several papyri, which are preserved in the British Museum and in the National Library in Paris, and extracts from it, which were used by Egyptian pupils in the schools attached to the temples, and which are written upon slices of limestone, are to be seen in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo and elsewhere. The oldest copy of the work contains many mistakes, and in some places the text is unintelligible, but many parts of it can be translated, and the following extracts will illustrate the piety and moral worth, and the sagacity and experience of the shrewd but kindly "man of the world" who undertook to guide the young prince of his day. The sage begins his work with a lament about the evil effects that follow old age in a man—

"Depression seizeth upon him every day, his eyesight faileth, his ears become deaf, his strength declineth, his heart hath no rest, the mouth becometh silent and speaketh not, the intelligence diminisheth, and it is impossible to remember to-day what happened yesterday. The bones are full of pain, the pursuit that was formerly attended with pleasure is now fraught with pain, and the sense of taste departeth. Old age is the worst of all the miseries that can befall a man. The nose becometh stopped up and one cannot smell at all." At this point Ptah-hetep asks, rhetorically, "Who will give me authority to speak? Who is it that will authorise me to repeat to the prince the Precepts of those who had knowledge of the wise counsels of the learned men of old? "In answer to these questions the king replies to Ptah-hetep, "Instruct thou my son in the words of wisdom of olden time. It is instruction of this kind alone that formeth the character of the sons of noblemen, and the youth who hearkeneth to such instruction will acquire a right understanding and the faculty of judging justly, and he will not feel weary of his duties." Immediately following these words come the "Precepts of beautiful speech" of Ptah-hetep, whose full titles are given, viz. the Erpa, the Duke, the father of the god (i.e. the king), the friend of God, the son of the king. Governor of Memphis, confidential servant of the king. These Precepts instruct the ignorant, and teach them to understand fine speech; among them are the following:

"Be not haughty because of thy knowledge. Converse with the ignorant man as well as with him that is educated.

"Do not terrify the people, for if thou dost, God will punish thee. If any man saith that he is going to live by these means, God will make his mouth empty of food. If a man saith that he is going to make himself powerful (or rich) thereby, saying, 'I shall reap advantage, having knowledge,' and if he saith, 'I will beat down the other man,' he will arrive at the result of being able to do nothing. Let no man terrify the people, for the command of God is that they shall enjoy rest.

"If thou art one of a company seated to eat in the house of a man who is greater than thyself, take what he giveth thee [without remark]. Set it before thee. Look at what is before thee, but not too closely, and do not look at it too often. The man who rejecteth it is an ill-mannered person. Do not speak to interrupt when he is speaking, for one knoweth not when he may disapprove. Speak when he addresseth thee, and then thy words shall be acceptable. When a man hath wealth he ordereth his actions according to his own dictates. He doeth what he willeth.... The great man can effect by the mere lifting up of his hand what a [poor] man cannot. Since the eating of bread is according to the dispensation of God, a man cannot object thereto.

"If thou art a man whose duty it is to enter into the presence of a nobleman with a message from another nobleman, take care to say correctly and in the correct way what thou art sent to say; give the message exactly as he said it. Take great care not to spoil it in delivery and so to set one nobleman against another. He who wresteth the truth in transmitting the message, and only repeateth it in words that give pleasure to all men, gentleman or common man, is an abominable person.

"If thou art a farmer, till the field which the great God hath given thee. Eat not too much when thou art near thy neighbours.... The children of the man who, being a man of substance, seizeth [prey] like the crocodile in the presence of the field labourers, are cursed because of his behaviour, his father suffereth poignant grief, and as for the mother who bore him, every other woman is happier than she. A man who is the leader of a clan (or tribe) that trusteth him and followeth him becometh a god.

"If thou dost humble thyself and dost obey a wise man, thy behaviour will be held to be good before God. Since thou knowest who are to serve, and who are to command, let not thy heart magnify itself against the latter. Since thou knowest who hath the power, hold in fear him that hath it....

"Be diligent at all times. Do more than is commanded. Waste not the time wherein thou canst labour; he is an abominable man who maketh a bad use of his time. Lose no chance day by day in adding to the riches of thy house. Work produceth wealth, and wealth endureth not when work is abandoned.

"If thou art a wise man, beget a son who shall be pleasing unto God.

"If thou art a wise man, be master of thy house. Love thy wife absolutely, give her food in abundance, and raiment for her back; these are the medicines for her body. Anoint her with unguents, and make her happy as long as thou livest. She is thy field, and she reflecteth credit on her possessor. Be not harsh in thy house, for she will be more easily moved by persuasion than by violence. Satisfy her wish, observe what she expecteth, and take note of that whereon she hath fixed her gaze. This is the treatment that will keep her in her house; if thou repel her advances, it is ruin for thee. Embrace her, call her by fond names, and treat her lovingly.

"Treat thy dependants as well as thou art able, for this is the duty of those whom God hath blessed.

"If thou art a wise man, and if thou hast a seat in the council chamber of thy lord, concentrate thy mind on the business [so as to arrive at] a wise decision. Keep silence, for this is better than to talk overmuch. When thou speakest thou must know what can be urged against thy words. To speak in the council chamber [needeth] skill and experience.

"If thou hast become a great man having once been a poor man, and hast attained to the headship of the city, study not to take the fullest advantage of thy situation. Be not harsh in respect of the grain, for thou art only an overseer of the food of God.

"Think much, but keep thy mouth closed; if thou dost not how canst thou consult with the nobles? Let thy opinion coincide with that of thy lord. Do what he saith, and then he shall say of thee to those who are listening, 'This is my son.'"

The above and all the other Precepts of Ptah-hetep were drawn up for the guidance of highly-placed young men, and have little to do with practical, every-day morality. But whilst the Egyptian scribes who lived under the Middle and New Empires were ready to pay all honour to the writings of an earlier age, they were not slow to perceive that the older Precepts did not supply advice on every important subject, and they therefore proceeded to write supplementary Precepts. A very interesting collection of such Precepts is found in a papyrus preserved in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. They are generally known as the "Maxims of Ani," and the following examples will illustrate their scope and character:

"Celebrate thou the festival of thy God, and repeat the celebration thereof in its appointed season. God is wroth with the transgressor of this law. Bear testimony [to Him] after thy offering....

"The opportunity having passed, one seeketh [in vain] to seize another.

"God will magnify the name of the man who exalteth His Souls, who singeth His praises, and boweth before Him, who offereth incense, and doeth homage [to Him] in his work.

"Enter not into the presence of the drunkard, even if his acquaintance be an honour to thee.

"Beware of the woman in the street who is not known in her native town. Follow her not, nor any woman who is like her. Do not make her acquaintance. She is like a deep stream the windings of which are unknown.

"Go not with common men, lest thy name be made to stink."

"When an inquiry is held, and thou art present, multiply not speech; thou wilt do better if thou holdest thy peace. Act not the part of the chatterer.

"The sanctuary of God abhorreth noisy demonstrations. Pray thou with a loving heart, and let thy words be hidden (or secret). Do this, and He will do thy business for thee. He will hearken unto thy words, and He will receive thy offering.

"Place water before thy father and thy mother who rest in their tombs.... Forget not to do this when thou art outside thy house, and as thou doest for them so shall thy son do for thee."

"Frequent not the house where men drink beer, for the words that fall from thy mouth will be repeated, and it is a bad thing for thee not to know what thou didst really say. Thou wilt fall down, thy bones may be broken, and there will be no one to give thee a hand [to help thee]. Thy boon companions who are drinking with thee will say, 'Throw this drunken man out of the door.' When thy friends come to look for thee, they will find thee lying on the ground as helpless as a babe.

"When the messenger of [death] cometh to carry thee away, let him find thee prepared. Alas, thou wilt have no opportunity for speech, for verily his terror will be before thee. Say not, 'Thou art carrying me off in my youth.' Thou knowest not when thy death will take place. Death cometh, and he seizeth the babe at the breast of his mother, as well as the man who hath arrived at a ripe old age. Observe this, for I speak unto thee good advice which thou shalt meditate upon in thy heart. Do these things, and thou wilt be a good man, and evils of all kinds shall remove themselves from thee."

"Remain not seated whilst another is standing, especially if he be an old man, even though thy social position (or rank) be higher than his.

"The man who uttereth ill-natured words must not expect to receive good-natured deeds.

"If thou journeyest on a road [made by] thy hands each day, thou wilt arrive at the place where thou wouldst be.

"What ought people to talk about every day? Administrators of high rank should discuss the laws, women should talk about their husbands, and every man should speak about his own affairs.

"Never speak an ill-natured word to any visitor; a word dropped some day when thou art gossiping may overturn thy house.

"If thou art well-versed in books, and hast gone into them, set them in thy heart; whatsoever thou then utterest will be good. If the scribe be appointed to any position, he will converse about his documents. The director of the treasury hath no son, and the overseer of the seal hath no heir. High officials esteem the scribe, whose hand is his position of honour, which they do not give to children....

"The ruin of a man resteth on his tongue; take heed that thou harmest not thyself.

"The heart of a man is [like] the store-chamber of a granary that is full of answers of every kind; choose thou those that are good, and utter them, and keep those that are bad closely confined within thee. To answer roughly is like the brandishing of weapons, but if thou wilt speak kindly and quietly thou wilt always [be loved].

"When thou offerest up offerings to thy God, beware lest thou offer the things that are an abomination [to Him]. Chatter not [during] his journeyings (or processions), seek not to prolong (?) his appearance, disturb not those who carry him, chant not his offices too loudly, and beware lest thou.... Let thine eye observe his dispensations. Devote thyself to the adoration of his name. It is he who giveth souls to millions of forms, and he magnifieth the man who magnifieth him....

"I gave thee thy mother who bore thee, and in bearing thee she took upon herself a great burden, which she bore without help from me. When after some months thou wast born, she placed herself under a yoke, for three years she suckled thee.... When thou wast sent to school to be educated, she brought bread and beer for thee from her house to thy master regularly each day. Thou art now grown up, and thou hast a wife and a house of thy own. Keep thine eye on thy child, and bring him up as thy mother brought thee up. Do nothing whatsoever that will cause her (i.e. thy mother) to suffer, lest she lift up her hands to God, and He hear her complaint, [and punish thee].

"Eat not bread, whilst another standeth by, without pointing out to him the bread with thy hand....

"Devote thyself to God, take heed to thyself daily for the sake of God, and let to-morrow be as to-day. Work thou [for him]. God seeth him that worketh for Him, and He esteemeth lightly the man who esteemeth Him lightly.

"Follow not after a woman, and let her not take possession of thy heart.

"Answer not a man when he is wroth, but remove thyself from him. Speak gently to him that hath spoken in anger, for soft words are the medicine for his heart.

"Seek silence for thyself."

For the study of the moral character of the ancient Egyptian, a document, of which a mutilated copy is found on a papyrus preserved in the Royal Library in Berlin, is of peculiar importance. As the opening lines are wanting it is impossible to know what the title of the work was, but because the text records a conversation that took place between a man who had suffered grievous misfortunes, and was weary of the world and of all in it, and wished to kill himself, it is generally called the "TALK OF A MAN WHO WAS TIRED OF LIFE WITH HIS SOUL." The general meaning of the document is clear. The man weary of life discusses with his soul, as if it were a being wholly distinct from himself, whether he shall kill himself or not. He is willing to do so, but is only kept from his purpose by his soul's observation that if he does there will be no one to bury him properly, and to see that the funerary ceremonies are duly performed. This shows that the man who was tired of life was alone in the world, and that all his relations and friends had either forsaken him, or had been driven away by him. His soul then advised him to destroy himself by means of fire, probably, as has been suggested, because the ashes of a burnt body would need no further care. The man accepted the advice of his soul, and was about to follow it literally, when the soul itself drew back, being afraid to undergo the sufferings inherent in such a death for the body. The man then asked his soul to perform for him the last rites, but it absolutely refused to do so, and told him that it objected to death in any form, and that it had no desire at all to depart to the kingdom of the dead. The soul supports its objection to suffer by telling the man who is tired of life that the mere remembrance of burial is fraught with mourning, and tears, and sorrow. It means that a man is torn away from his house and thrown out upon a hill, and that he will never go up again to see the sun. And after all, what is the good of burial? Take the case of those who have had granite tombs, and funerary monuments in the form of pyramids made for them, and who lie in them in great state and dignity. If we look at the slabs in their tombs, which have been placed there on purpose to receive offerings from the kinsfolk and friends of the deceased, we shall find that they are just as bare as are the tablets for offerings of the wretched people who belong to the Corvee, of whom some die on the banks of the canals, leaving one part of their bodies on the land and the other in the water, and some fall into the water altogether and are eaten by the fish, and others under the burning heat of the sun become bloated and loathsome objects. Because men receive fine burials it does not follow that offerings of food, which will enable them to continue their existence, will be made by their kinsfolk. Finally the soul ends its speech with the advice that represented the view of the average Egyptian in all ages, "Follow after the day of happiness, and banish care," that is to say, spare no pains in making thyself happy at all times, and let nothing that concerns the present or the future trouble thee.

This advice, which is well expressed by the words which the rich man spake to his soul, "Take thine ease, eat, drink, and be merry" (St. Luke xii. 19), was not acceptable to the man who was tired of life, and he at once addressed to his soul a series of remarks, couched in rhythmical language, in which he made it clear that, so far as he was concerned, death would be preferable to life. He begins by saying that his name is more detested than the smell of birds on a summer's day when the heavens are hot, and the smell of a handler of fish newly caught when the heavens are hot, and the smell of water-fowl in a bed of willows wherein geese collect, and the smell of fishermen in the marshes where fishing hath been carried on, and the stench of crocodiles, and the place where crocodiles do congregate. In a second group of rhythmical passages the man who was tired of life goes on to describe the unsatisfactory and corrupt condition of society, and his wholesale condemnation of it includes his own kinsfolk. Each passage begins with the words, "Unto whom do I speak this day?" and he says, "Brothers are bad, and the friends of to-day lack love. Hearts are shameless, and every man seizeth the goods of his neighbour. The meek man goeth to ground (i.e. is destroyed), and the audacious man maketh his way into all places. The man of gracious countenance is wretched, and the good are everywhere treated as contemptible. When a man stirreth thee up to wrath by his wickedness, his evil acts make all people laugh. One robbeth, and everyone stealeth the possessions of his neighbour. Disease is continual, and the brother who is with it becometh an enemy. One remembereth not yesterday, and one doeth nothing ... in this hour. Brothers are bad.... Faces disappear, and each hath a worse aspect than that of his brother. Hearts are shameless, and the man upon whom one leaneth hath no heart. There are no righteous men left, the earth is an example of those who do evil. There is no true man left, and each is ignorant of what he hath learnt. No man is content with what he hath; go with the man [you believe to be contented], and he is not [to be found]. I am heavily laden with misery, and I have no true friend. Evil hath smitten the land, and there is no end to it."

The state of the world being thus, the man who was tired of life is driven to think that there is nothing left for him but death; it is hopeless to expect the whole state of society to change for the better, therefore death must be his deliverer. To his soul he says, "Death standeth before me this day, [and is to me as] the restoration to health of a man who hath been sick, and as the coming out into the fresh air after sickness. Death standeth before me this day like the smell of myrrh, and the sitting under the sail of a boat on a day with a fresh breeze. Death standeth before me this day like the smell of lotus flowers, and like one who is sitting on the bank of drunkenness.[1] Death standeth before me this day like a brook filled with rain water, and like the return of a man to his own house from the ship of war. Death standeth before me this day like the brightening of the sky after a storm, and like one.... Death standeth before me this day as a man who wisheth to see his home once again, having passed many years as a prisoner." The three rhythmical passages that follow show that the man who was tired of life looked beyond death to a happier state of existence, in which wrong would be righted, and he who had suffered on this earth would be abundantly rewarded. The place where justice reigned supreme was ruled over by Ra, and the man does not call it "heaven," but merely "there."[2] He says, "He who is there shall indeed be like unto a loving god, and he shall punish him that doeth wickedness. He who is there shall certainly stand in the Boat of the Sun, and shall bestow upon the temples the best [offerings]. He who is there shall indeed become a man of understanding who cannot be resisted, and who prayeth to Ra when he speaketh." The arguments in favour of death of the man who was tired of life are superior to those of the soul in favour of life, for he saw beyond death the "there" which the soul apparently had not sufficiently considered. The value of the discussion between the man and his soul was great in the opinion of the ancient Egyptian because it showed, with almost logical emphasis, that the incomprehensible things of "here" would be made clear "there."

[Footnote 1: i.e. sitting on a seat in a tavern built on the river bank.]

[Footnote 2: Compare, "There the tears of earth are dried; There its hidden things are clear; There the work of life is tried By a juster judge than here." —Hymns Ancient and Modern, No. 401.]

The man who was tired of life did not stand alone in his discontent with the surroundings in which he lived, and with his fellow-man, for from a board inscribed in hieratic in the British Museum (No. 5645) we find that a priest of Heliopolis called Khakhepersenb, who was surnamed Ankhu, shared his discontent, and was filled with disgust at the widespread corruption and decadence of all classes of society that were everywhere in the land. In the introduction to this description of society as he saw it, he says that he wishes he possessed new language in which to express himself, and that he could find phrases that were not trite in which to utter his experience. He says that men of one generation are very much like those of another, and have all done and said the same kind of things. He wishes to unburden his mind, and to remove his moral sickness by stating what he has to say in words that have not before been used. He then goes on to say, "I ponder on the things that have taken place, and the events that have occurred throughout the land. Things have happened, and they are different from those of last year. Each year is more wearisome than the last. The whole country is disturbed and is going to destruction. Justice (or right) is thrust out, injustice (or sin) is in the council hall, the plans of the gods are upset, and their behests are set aside. The country is in a miserable state, grief is in every place, and both towns and provinces lament. Every one is suffering through wrong-doing. All respect of persons is banished. The lords of quiet are set in commotion. When daylight cometh each day [every] face turneth away from the sight of what hath happened [during the night].... I ponder on the things that have taken place. Troubles flow in to-day, and to-morrow [tribulations] will not cease. Though all the country is full of unrest, none will speak about it. There is no innocent man [left], every one worketh wickedness. Hearts are bowed in grief. He who giveth orders is like unto the man to whom orders are given, and their hearts are well pleased. Men wake daily [and find it so], yet they do not abate it. The things of yesterday are like those of to-day, and in many respects both days are alike. Men's faces are stupid, and there is none capable of understanding, and none is driven to speak by his anger.... My pain is keen and protracted. The poor man hath not the strength to protect himself against the man who is stronger than he. To hold the tongue about what one heareth is agony, but to reply to the man who doth not understand causeth suffering. If one protesteth against what is said, the result is hatred; for the truth is not understood, and every protest is resented. The only words which any man will now listen to are his own. Every one believes in his own.... Truth hath forsaken speech altogether."

Whether the copy of the work from which the above extracts is taken be complete or not cannot be said, but in any case there is no suggestion on the board in the British Museum that the author of the work had any remedy in his mind for the lamentable state of things which he describes. Another Egyptian writer, called Apuur, who probably flourished a little before the rule of the kings of the twelfth dynasty, depicts the terrible state of misery and corruption into which Egypt had fallen in his time, but his despair is not so deep as that of the man who was tired of his life or that of the priest Khakhepersenb. On the contrary, he has sufficient hope of his country to believe that the day will come when society shall be reformed, and when wickedness and corruption shall be done away, and when the land shall be ruled by a just ruler. It is difficult to say, but it seems as if he thought this ruler would be a king who would govern Egypt with righteousness, as did Ra in the remote ages, and that his advent was not far off. The Papyrus in which the text on which these observations are based is preserved in Leyden, No. 1344. It has been discussed carefully by several scholars, some of whom believe that its contents prove that the expectation of the coming of a Messiah was current in Egypt some forty-five centuries ago. The following extracts will give an idea of the character of the indictment which Apuur drew up against the Government and society of his day, and which he had the temerity to proclaim in the presence of the reigning king and his court. He says: "The guardians of houses say, 'Let us go and steal.' The snarers of birds have formed themselves into armed bands. The peasants of the Delta have provided themselves with bucklers. A man regardeth his son as his enemy. The righteous man grieveth because of what hath taken place in the country. A man goeth out with his shield to plough. The man with a bow is ready [to shoot], the wrongdoer is in every place. The inundation of the Nile cometh, yet no one goeth out to plough. Poor men have gotten costly goods, and the man who was unable to make his own sandals is a possessor of wealth. The hearts of slaves are sad, and the nobles no longer participate in the rejoicings of their people. Men's hearts are violent, there is plague everywhere, blood is in every place, death is common, and the mummy wrappings call to people before they are used. Multitudes are buried in the river, the stream is a tomb, and the place of mummification is a canal. The gentle folk weep, the simple folk are glad, and the people of every town say, 'Come, let us blot out these who have power and possessions among us.' Men resemble the mud-birds, filth is everywhere, and every one is clad in dirty garments. The land spinneth round like the wheel of the potter. The robber is a rich man, and [the rich man] is a robber. The poor man groaneth and saith, 'This is calamity indeed, but what can I do?' The river is blood, and men drink it; they cease to be men who thirst for water. Gates and their buildings are consumed with fire, yet the palace is stable and nourishing. The boats of the peoples of the South have failed to arrive, the towns are destroyed, and Upper Egypt is desert. The crocodiles are sated with their prey, for men willingly go to them. The desert hath covered the land, the Nomes are destroyed, and there are foreign troops in Egypt. People come hither [from everywhere], there are no Egyptians left in the land. On the necks of the women slaves [hang ornaments of] gold, lapis-lazuli, silver, turquoise, carnelian, bronze, and abhet stone. There is good food everywhere, and yet mistresses of houses say, 'Would that we had something to eat.' The skilled masons who build pyramids have become hinds on farms, and those who tended the Boat of the god are yoked together [in ploughing]. Men do not go on voyages to Kepuna (Byblos in Syria) to-day. What shall we do for cedar wood for our mummies, in coffins of which priests are buried, and with the oil of which men are embalmed? They come no longer. There is no gold, the handicrafts languish. What is the good of a treasury if we have nothing to put in it? Everything is in ruins. Laughter is dead, no one can laugh. Groaning and lamentation are everywhere in the land. Egyptians have turned into foreigners. The hair hath fallen out of the head of every man. A gentleman cannot be distinguished from a nobody. Every man saith, 'I would that I were dead,' and children say, '[My father] ought not to have begotten me.' Children of princes are dashed against the walls, the children of desire are cast out into the desert, and Khnemu[1] groaneth in sheer exhaustion. The Asiatics have become workmen in the Delta. Noble ladies and slave girls suffer alike. The women who used to sing songs now sing dirges. Female slaves speak as they like, and when their mistress commandeth they are aggrieved. Princes go hungry and weep. The hasty man saith, 'If I only knew where God was I would make offerings to Him.' The hearts of the flocks weep, and the cattle groan because of the condition of the land. A man striketh his own brother. What is to be done? The roads are watched by robbers, who hide in the bushes until a benighted traveller cometh, when they rob him. They seize his goods, and beat him to death with cudgels. Would that the human race might perish, and there be no more conceiving or bringing to the birth! If only the earth could be quiet, and revolts cease! Men eat herbs and drink water, and there is no food for the birds, and even the swill is taken from the mouths of the swine. There is no grain anywhere, and people lack clothes, unguents, and oil. Every man saith, 'There is none.' The storehouse is destroyed, and its keeper lieth prone on the ground. The documents have been filched from their august chambers, and the shrine is desecrated. Words of power are unravelled, and spells made powerless. The public offices are broken open and their documents stolen, and serfs have become their own masters. The laws of the court-house are rejected, men trample on them in public, and the poor break them in the street. Things are now done that have never been done before, for a party of miserable men have removed the king. The secrets of the Kings of the South and of the North have been revealed. The man who could not make a coffin for himself hath a large tomb. The occupants of tombs have been cast out into the desert, and the man who could not make a coffin for himself hath now a treasury. He who could not build a hut for himself is now master of a habitation with walls. The rich man spendeth his night athirst, and he who begged for the leavings in the pots hath now brimming bowls. Men who had fine raiment are now in rags, and he who never wore a garment at all now dresseth in fine linen. The poor have become rich, and the rich poor. Noble ladies sell their children for beds. Those who once had beds now sleep on the ground. Noble ladies go hungry, whilst butchers are sated with what was once prepared for them. A man is slain by his brother's side, and that brother fleeth to save his own life."

[Footnote 1: The god who fashioned the bodies of men.]

Apuur next, in a series of five short exhortations, entreats his bearers to take action of some sort; each exhortation begins with the words, "Destroy the enemies of the sacred palace (or Court)." These are followed by a series of sentences, each of which begins with the word "Remember," and contains one exhortation to his hearers to perform certain duties in connection with the service of the gods. Thus they are told to burn incense and to pour out libations each morning, to offer various kinds of geese to the gods, to eat natron, to make white bread, to set up poles on the temples and stelae inside them, to make the priest to purify the temples, to remove from his office the priest who is unclean, &c. After many breaks in the text we come to the passage in which Apuur seems to foretell the coming of the king who is to restore order and prosperity to the land. He is to make cool that which is hot. He is to be the "shepherd of mankind," having no evil in his heart. When his herds are few [and scattered], he will devote his time to bringing them together, their hearts being inflamed. The passage continues, "Would that he had perceived their nature in the first generation (of men), then he would have repressed evils, he would have stretched forth (his) arm against it, he would have destroyed their seed (?) and their inheritance.... A fighter (?) goeth forth, that (he?) may destroy the wrongs that (?) have been wrought. There is no pilot (?) in their moment. Where is he (?) to-day? Is he sleeping? Behold, his might is not seen." [1] Many of the passages in the indictment of Apuur resemble the descriptions of the state of the land of Israel and her people which are found in the writings of the Hebrew Prophets, and the "shepherd of mankind," i.e. of the Egyptians, forcibly reminds us of the appeal to the "Shepherd of Israel" in Psalm lxxx. 1.

[Footnote 1: See A.H. Gardiner, Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage, Leipzic, 1909, p. 78.]



CHAPTER XIV

EGYPTIAN POETICAL COMPOSITIONS

The poetry of the Egyptians is wholly unlike that of western nations, but closely resembles the rhythmical compositions of the Hebrews, with their parallelism of members, with which we are all familiar in the Book of Psalms, the Song of Solomon, &c. The most important collection of Egyptian Songs known to us is contained in the famous papyrus in the British Museum, No. 10,060, more commonly known as "Harris 500." This papyrus was probably written in the thirteenth century B.C., but many of the songs belong to a far earlier date. Though dealing with a variety of subjects, there is no doubt that all of them must be classed under the heading of "Love Songs." In them the lover compares the lady of his choice to many beautiful flowers and plants, and describes at considerable length the pain and grief which her absence causes him. The lines of the strophes are short, and the construction is simple, and it seems certain that the words owed their effect chiefly to the voice of the singer, who then, as now, employed many semitones and thirds of tones, and to the skill with which he played the accompaniment on his harp. A papyrus at Leyden, which was written a little later than the "Love Songs," contains three very curious compositions. The first is a sort of lament of a pomegranate tree, which, in spite of the service which it has rendered to the "sister and her brother," is not included among trees of the first class. In the second a fig tree expresses its gratitude and its readiness to do the will of its mistress, and to allow its branches to be cut off to make a bed for her. In the third a sycamore tree invites the lady of the land on which it stands to come under the shadow of its branches, and to enjoy a happy time with her lover, and promises her that it will never speak about what it sees.

More interesting than any of the above songs is the so-called "Song of the Harper," of which two copies are known: the first is found in the papyrus Harris 500, already mentioned, and the second in a papyrus at Leyden. Extracts of this poem are also found on the walls of the tomb of Nefer-hetep at Thebes. The copy in the papyrus reads:

THE POEM THAT IS IN THE HALL OF THE TOMB OF [THE KING OF THE SOUTH, THE KING OF THE NORTH], ANTUF,[1] WHOSE WORD IS TRUTH, [AND IS CUT] IN FRONT OF THE HARPER.

O good prince, it is a decree, And what hath been ordained thereby is well, That the bodies of men shall pass away and disappear, Whilst others remain.

Since the time of the oldest ancestors, The gods who lived in olden time, Who lie at rest in their sepulchres, The Masters and also the Shining Ones, Who have been buried in their splendid tombs, Who have built sacrificial halls in their tombs, Their place is no more. Consider what hath become of them!

I have heard the words of Imhetep [2] and Herutataf,[3] Which are treasured above everything because they uttered them. Consider what hath become of their tombs! Their walls have been thrown down; Their places are no more; They are just as if they had never existed.

Not one [of them] cometh from where they are. Who can describe to us their form (or, condition), Who can describe to us their surroundings, Who can give comfort to our hearts, And can act as our guide To the place whereunto they have departed?

Give comfort to thy heart, And let thy heart forget these things; What is best for thee to do is To follow thy heart's desire as long as thou livest.

Anoint thy head with scented unguents. Let thine apparel be of byssus Dipped in costly [perfumes], In the veritable products (?) of the gods.

Enjoy thyself more than thou hast ever done before, And let not thy heart pine for lack of pleasure.

Pursue thy heart's desire and thine own happiness. Order thy surroundings on earth in such a way That they may minister to the desire of thy heart; [For] at length that day of lamentation shall come, Wherein he whose heart is still shall not hear the lamentation. Never shall cries of grief cause To beat [again] the heart of a man who is in the grave.

Therefore occupy thyself with thy pleasure daily, And never cease to enjoy thyself.

Behold, a man is not permitted To carry his possessions away with him. Behold, there never was any one who, having departed, Was able to come back again.

[Footnote 1: He was one of the kings of the eleventh dynasty, about 2700 B.C.]

[Footnote 2: A high official of Tcheser, a king of the third dynasty.]

[Footnote 3: Son of Khufu, the builder of the Great Pyramid (fourth dynasty.)]



CHAPTER XV

MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE

In this chapter are given short notices of a series of works which the limits of this book make it impossible to describe at greater length.

I. The BOOK OF THE TWO WAYS.—This is a very ancient funerary work, which is found written in cursive hieroglyphs upon coffins of the eleventh and twelfth dynasties, of which many fine examples are to be seen in the British Museum. The object of the work is to provide the souls of the dead with a guide that will enable them, when they leave this world, to make a successful journey across the Tuat, i.e. the Other World or Dead Land, to the region where Osiris lived and ruled over the blessed dead. The work describes the roads that must be travelled over, and names the places where opposition is to be expected, and supplies the deceased with the words of power which he is to utter when in difficulties. The abode of the blessed dead could be reached either by water or by land, and the book affords the information necessary for journeying thither by either route. The sections of the book are often accompanied by coloured vignettes, which illustrate them, and serve as maps of the various regions of the Other World, and describe the exact positions of the streams and canals that have to be crossed, and the Islands of the Blest, and the awful country of blazing fire and boiling water in which the bodies, souls, and spirits of the wicked were destroyed.

II. The BOOK "AM TUAT," or Guide to him that is in the Tuat.—This Book has much in common with the Book of the Two Ways. According to it, the region that lay between this world and the realm of Osiris was divided into ten parts, which were traversed, once each night, by the Sun-god in the form which he took during the night. At the western end was a sort of vestibule, through which the god passed from the day sky into the Tuat, and at the eastern end was another vestibule, through which he passed on leaving the Tuat to re-enter the day sky. The two vestibules were places of gloom and semi-darkness, and the ten divisions of the Tuat were covered by black night. When the Sun-god set in the west in the evening he was obliged to travel through the Tuat to the eastern sky, in order to rise again on this earth on the following day. He entered the Tuat at or near Thebes, proceeded northwards, through the under-worlds of Thebes, Abydos, Herakleopolis, Memphis, and Sais, then turned towards the east and crossed the Delta, and, having passed through the underworld of Heliopolis, appeared in the eastern sky to resume his daily course from east to west. His journey so far as Memphis he made in a boat, which sailed on the river of the Tuat. At Memphis he left the boat on the river, and entered a magical boat formed of a serpent's body, and so passed under the mountainous district round about Sakkarah. At or near Sais he returned to his river boat, and sailing over the great marine lakes of the Delta reached Heliopolis. The sun-god was guided through each section of the Tuat by a goddess who belonged to the district, and for the sake of uniformity the journey through each section was supposed to occupy an hour; the guiding goddess left the god's boat at the end of her hour, and the goddess of the next section took her place. The path of the god was lighted by fire, which the beings who lived in the various sections poured out of their mouths, and the attendant gods who were with them in his boat spake words of power, which overcame all opposition and removed every obstacle. As he passed through each section it was temporarily lighted up by the fire already mentioned, and he uttered words of power, the effect of which was to supply the inhabitants of the section with air, food, and drink, sufficient to last until the next night, when he would renew the supply. Many parts of the Tuat were filled with hideous monsters in human and animal forms, and with evil spirits of every kind, but they were all rendered powerless by the spells uttered by the gods who were in attendance on the Sun-god in his boat. At one time in the history of Egypt it became the earnest wish of every pious man to make the journey from this world to the next in the Boat of the Sun. Armed with words of power and amulets of all kinds, and relying on their lives of moral rectitude, and the effect of the offerings which they had made to the dead, their souls entered the Boat, and set out on their journey. When they reached Abydos their credentials were examined, and those who were found to be speakers of the truth and upright in their actions were allowed to continue their journey with the Sun-god, and to live with him ever after. Some souls preferred to remain at Abydos and to live with Osiris, and those who were found righteous in the Judgment were allowed to do so, and were granted estates in perpetuity in the kingdom of this god. The Book "AM TUAT" describes the sections of the Tuat and their inhabitants, and supplies all the information which the soul was supposed to require in passing from this world to the next. Many copies of certain sections of it are known, and some of these are in the British Museum;[1] the most complete copy of it is in the tomb of Seti I at Thebes.

[Footnote 1: See the massive stone sarcophagi of Nectonebus exhibited in the Southern Egyptian Gallery of the British Museum.]

III. The BOOK OF GATES.—This book was also written to be a Guide to the Tuat, and has much in common with the Book of the Two Ways and with the Book Am Tuat. In it also the Tuat is divided into ten sections and has two vestibules, the Eastern and the Western, but at the entrance to each section is a strongly fortified Gate, guarded by a monster serpent-god and by the gods of the section. The Sun-god of night, as in the Book Am Tuat, makes his journey in a boat, and is attended by a number of gods, who remove all opposition from his path by the use of words of power. As he approaches each Gate, its doors are thrown open by the gods who guard them, and he passes into the section of the Tuat behind it, carrying with him light, air, and food for its inhabitants. The Book of Gates embodies the teaching of the priests of the cult of Osiris, and the Book Am Tuat represents the modified form of it that was promulgated by the priests of Amen. From the Book of Gates we derive much information about the realm of Osiris, and the Great Judgment of souls, which took place in his Hall of Judgment once a day at midnight. Then all the souls that had collected during the past twenty-four hours from all parts of Egypt were weighed in the Balance; the righteous were allotted estates in perpetuity in the "land of souls," and the wicked were destroyed by Shesmu, the executioner of the god, and by his assistants. The texts that describe the various "Gates" of the Book of Gates, explain who are the beings represented in the pictures, and state why they were there. And the Book proves conclusively that the Egyptians believed in the efficacy of sacrifices and offerings, and in the doctrine of righteous retribution; liars and deceivers were condemned, and their bodies, souls, spirits, doubles, and names destroyed, and the righteous were rewarded for their upright lives and integrity upon earth by the gift of everlasting life and happiness. The most complete copy of this interesting work in England is cut on the alabaster sarcophagus of Seti I, about 1350 B.C. This unique sepulchral monument is exhibited gratis in Sir John Soane's Museum at 13 Lincoln's Inn Fields, and every student of the religion of the Egyptians should examine it.

IV. The RITUAL OF EMBALMMENT.—Two important fragments of a copy of this work are preserved in the Museum of the Louvre (No. 5158), and a part of another in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo (No. 3); the former copy was written for a priest of Amen called Heru, and the latter for a priest called Hetra. These fragments of the work describe minutely the process of mummifying certain parts of a human body, and state what materials were employed by the embalmer. Moreover, it gives the texts of the magical and religious spells that were ordered to be recited by the priest who superintended the embalmment, the effect of which was to "make divine" each member of the body, and to secure for it the protecting influence of the god or goddess who presided over it. The following extract refers to the embalming of the head: "Then anoint the head of the deceased and all his mouth with oil, both the head and the face, and wrap it in the bandages of Harmakhis in Hebit. The bandage of the goddess Nekhebet shall be put on the forehead, the bandage of Hathor in Heliopolis on the face, the bandage of Thoth on the ears, and the bandage of Nebt-hetepet on the back of the neck. All the coverings of the head and all the strips of linen used in fastening them shall be taken from sheets of linen that have been examined as to quality and texture in the presence of the inspector of the mysteries. On the head of the deceased shall be the bandage of Sekhmet, beloved of Ptah, in two pieces. On the two ears two bandages called the "Complete." On the nostrils two bandages called "Nehai" and "Smen." On the cheeks two bandages called "He shall live." On the forehead four pieces of linen called the "shining ones." On the skull two pieces called "The two Eyes of Ra in their fullness." On the two sides of the face and ears twenty-two pieces. As to the mouth two inside, and two out. On the chin two pieces. On the back of the neck four large pieces. Then tie the whole head firmly with a strip of linen two fingers wide, and anoint a second time, and then fill up all the crevices with the oil already mentioned. Then say, "O august goddess, Lady of the East, Mistress of the West, come and enter into the two ears of Osiris. O mighty goddess, who art ever young, O great one, Lady of the East, Mistress of the West, let there be breathing in the head of the deceased in the Tuat. Let him see with his eyes, hear with his ears, breathe with his nose, pronounce with his mouth, and speak with his tongue in the Tuat. Accept his voice in the Hall of Truth, and let him be proved to have been a speaker of the truth in the Hall of Keb, in the presence of the Great God, the Lord of Amenti."

V. The RITUAL OF THE DIVINE CULT.—This title is commonly given to a work consisting of sixty-six chapters, which were recited daily by the high priest of Amen-Ra, the King of the Gods, in his temple at Thebes, during the performance of a series of ceremonies of a highly important and symbolical character. The text of this Ritual is found cut in hieroglyphs on the walls of the temple of Seti I at Abydos, and written in hieratic upon papyri preserved in the Imperial Museum in Berlin. The work was originally intended to be recited by the king himself daily, but it was soon found that the Lord of Egypt could not spare the time necessary for its recital each day, and he therefore was personified by the high priest of each temple in which the Ritual was performed. The object of the Ritual was to place the king in direct contact with his god Amen-Ra once a day. The king was an incarnation of Amen-Ra, and ruled Egypt as the representative upon earth of the god. He drew his power and wisdom direct from the god, and it was believed that these required renewal daily. To bring about this renewal of the divine spirit in the god's vicegerent upon earth, the king entered the temple in the early morning, and performed ceremonies and recited formulae that purified both the sanctuary and himself. He then advanced to the shrine, which contained a small gilded wooden figure of the god, inlaid with precious stones and provided with a movable head, arms, and legs, and opened it and knelt down before the figure. He performed further ceremonies of purification, and finally took the figure of the god in his arms and embraced it. During this embrace the divine power of Amen-Ra, which was in the gilded figure at that moment, passed into the body of the king, and the divine power and wisdom, which were in the king as the god's representative, were renewed. The king then closed the doors of the shrine and left the sanctuary for a short time. When he returned he opened the shrine again, and made adoration to the god, and presented a series of offerings that symbolised Truth. After this the king dressed the figure of the god in sacred apparel, and decorated it. Then, having performed further acts of worship before it, he closed the doors of the shrine, sealed them with mud seals, and left the sanctuary.

VI. The BOOK "MAY MY NAME FLOURISH."—This was a very popular funerary work in the Roman Period. It is a development of a long prayer that is found in the Pyramid Texts, and was written by the priests and used as a spell to make the name of the deceased flourish eternally in heaven and on the earth. Many copies of it, written on narrow strips of papyrus, are preserved in the British Museum.

VII. The BOOK OF AAPEP, the great enemy of the Sun-god.—Aapep was the god of evil, who became incarnate in many forms, especially in wild and savage animals and in monster serpents and venomous reptiles of every kind. He was supposed to take the form of a huge serpent and to lie in wait near the portals of the dawn daily, so that he might swallow up the sun as he was about to rise in the eastern sky. He was accompanied by legions of devils and fiends, red and black, and by all the powers of storm, tempest, hurricane, whirlwind, thunder and lightning, and he was the deadly foe of all order, both physical and moral, and of all good in heaven and in earth. At certain times during the day and night the priests in the temple of Amen-Ra recited a series of chapters, and performed a number of magical ceremonies, which were intended to strengthen the arms of the Sun-god, and give him power to overcome the resistance of Aapep. These chapters acted on Aapep as spells, and they paralysed the monster just as he was about to attack the Sun-god. The god then approached and shot his fiery darts into him, and his attendant gods hacked the monster's body to pieces, which shrivelled up under the burning heat of the rays of the Sun-god, and all the devils and fiends of darkness fled shrieking in terror at their leader's fate. The sun then rose on this world, and all the stars and spirits of the morning and all the gods of heaven sang for joy. The complete text of this book is found in a long papyrus dated in the reign of Alexander II in the British Museum (No. 10,188).

VIII. The INSTRUCTIONS, OR PRECEPTS OF TUAUF to his son Pepi.—Two copies of this work, which has also been called a "Hymn in praise of learning," are contained in a papyri preserved in the British Museum (Sallier II and Anastasi VII). These "Instructions" in reality represent the advice of a father to his son, whom he was sending to school to be trained for the profession of the scribe. Whether the boy was merely sorry to leave his home, or whether he disliked the profession which his father had chosen for him, is not clear, but from first to last the father urges him to apply himself to the pursuit of learning, which, in his opinion, is the foundation of all great and lasting success. He says, "I have compared the people who are artisans and handicraftsmen [with the scribe], and indeed I am convinced that there is nothing superior to letters. Plunge into the study of Egyptian Learning, as thou wouldst plunge into the river, and thou wilt find that this is so. I would that thou wouldst love Learning as thou lovest thy mother. I wish I were able to make thee to see how beautiful Learning is. It is more important than any trade in the world. Learning is not a mere phrase, for the man who devoteth himself thereto from his youth is honoured, and he is despatched on missions. I have watched the blacksmith at the door of his furnace. His hands are like crocodiles' hide, and he stinketh worse than fishes' eggs. The metal worker hath no more rest than the peasant on the farm. The stone mason—at the end of the day his arms are powerless; he sitteth huddled up together until the morning, and his knees and back are broken. The barber shaveth until far into the night, he only resteth when he eateth. He goeth from one street to another looking for work. He breaketh his arms to fill his belly, and, like the bees, he eateth his own labour. The builder of houses doeth his work with difficulty; he is exposed to all weathers, and he must cling to the walls which he is building like a creeping plant. His clothes are in a horrible state, and he washeth his body only once a day. The farmer weareth always the same clothes. His voice is like the croak of a bird, his skin is cracked by the wind; if he is healthy his health is that of the beasts. If he be ill he lieth down among them, and he sleepeth on the damp irrigated land. The envoy to foreign lands bequeatheth his property to his children before he setteth out, being afraid that he will be killed either by wild beasts of the desert or by the nomads therein. When he is in Egypt, what then? No sooner hath he arrived at home than he is sent off on another mission. As for the dyer, his fingers stink like rotten fish, and his clothes are absolutely horrors. The shoemaker is a miserable wretch. He is always asking for work, and his health is that of a dying fish. The washerman is neighbour to the crocodile. His food is mixed up with his clothes, and every member of him is unclean. The catcher of water-fowl, even though he dive in the Nile, may catch nothing. The trade of the fisherman is the worst of all. He is in blind terror of the crocodile, and falleth among crocodiles." The text continues with a few further remarks on the honourable character of the profession of the scribe, and ends with a series of Precepts of the same character as those found in the works of Ptah-hetep and the scribe Ani, from which extracts have already been given.

IX. MEDICAL PAPYRI.—The Egyptians possessed a good practical knowledge of the anatomy of certain parts of the human body, but there is no evidence that they practised dissection before the arrival of the Greeks in Egypt. The medical papyri that have come down to us contain a large number of short, rough-and-ready descriptions of certain diseases, and prescriptions of very great interest. The most important medical papyrus known is that which was bought at Luxor by the late Professor Ebers in 1872-3, and which is now preserved in Leipzig. This papyrus is about 65 feet long, and the text is written in the hieratic character. It was written in the ninth year of the reign of a king who is not yet satisfactorily identified, but who probably lived before the period of the rule of the eighteenth dynasty, perhaps about 1800 B.C. A short papyrus in the British Museum contains extracts from it, and other papyri with somewhat similar contents are preserved in the Museums of Paris, Leyden, Berlin, and California.

X. MAGICAL PAPYRI.—The widespread use of magic in Egypt in all ages suggests that the magical literature of Egypt must have been very large. Much of it was incorporated at a very early period into the Religious Literature of the country, and was used for legitimate purposes, in fact for the working of what we call "white magic." The Egyptian saw no wrong in the working of magic, and it was only condemned by him when the magician wished to produce evil results. The gods themselves were supposed to use spells and incantations, and every traveller by land or water carried with him magical formulae which he recited when he was in danger from the wild beasts of the desert or the crocodile of the river and its canals. Specimens of these will be found in the famous magical papyri in the British Museum, e.g. the Salt Papyrus, the Rhind Papyrus, and the Harris Papyrus. Under this heading may be mentioned Papyrus Sallier IV in the British Museum, which contains a list of lucky and unlucky days. Here is a specimen of its contents:

1st day of Hathor. The whole day is lucky. There is festival in heaven with Ra and Hathor.

2nd day of Hathor. The whole day is lucky. The gods go out. The goddess Uatchet comes from Tep to the gods who are in the shrine of the bull, in order to protect the divine members.

3rd day of Hathor. The whole day is lucky.

4th day of Hathor. The whole day is unlucky. The house of the man who goes on a voyage on that day comes to ruin.

6th day of Hathor. The whole day is unlucky. Do not light a fire in thy house on this day, and do not look at one.

18th day of Pharmuthi. The whole day is unlucky. Do not bathe on this day.

20th day of Pharmuthi. The whole day is unlucky. Do not work on this day.

22nd day of Pharmuthi. The whole day is unlucky. He who is born on this day will die on this day.

23rd day of Pharmuthi. The first two-thirds of the day are unlucky, and the last third lucky.

XI. LEGAL DOCUMENTS.—The first legal document written in Egypt was the will of Ra, in which he bequeathed all his property and the inheritance of the throne of Egypt to his first-born son Horus. Tradition asserted that this Will was preserved in the Library of the Sun-god in Heliopolis. The inscriptions contain many allusions to the Laws of Egypt, but no document containing any connected statement of them has come down to us. In the great inscription of Heruemheb, the last king of the eighteenth dynasty, a large number of good laws are given, but it must be confessed that as a whole the administration of the Law in many parts of Egypt must always have been very lax. Texts relating to bequests, endowments, grants of land, &c., are very difficult to translate, because it is well-nigh impossible to find equivalents for Egyptian legal terms. In the British Museum are two documents in hieratic that were drawn up in connection with prosecutions which the Government of Egypt undertook of certain thieves who had broken into some of the royal tombs at Thebes and robbed them, and of certain other thieves who had robbed the royal treasury and made away with a large amount of silver (Nos. 10,221, 10,052, 10,053, and 10,054). Equally interesting is the roll that describes the prosecution of certain highly placed officials and relations of Rameses III who had conspired against him and wanted to kill him. Several of the conspirators were compelled to commit suicide. The text is written in hieratic on papyrus, and is preserved in the Royal Museum, Leyden.

XII. HISTORICAL ROMANCES.—Examples of these are the narrative of the capture of the town of Joppa in Palestine by an officer of Thothmes III, and the history of the dispute that broke out between Seqenenra, King of Upper Egypt, and Aapepi, King of Avaris in the Delta. These are written in hieratic and are preserved in the British Museum, in Harris Papyrus 500, and Sallier No. 1 (10,185).

XIII. MATHEMATICS.—The chief source of our knowledge of the Mathematics of the Egyptians is the Rhind Papyrus in the British Museum (No. 10,057), which was written before 1700 B.C., probably during the reign of one of the Hyksos kings. The papyrus contains a number of simple arithmetical examples and several geometrical problems. The workings out of these prove that the Egyptian spared himself no trouble in making his calculations, and that he worked out both his arithmetical examples and problems in the most cumbrous and laborious way possible. He never studied mathematics in order to make progress in his knowledge of the science, but simply for purely practical everyday work; as long as his knowledge enabled him to obtain results which he knew from experience were substantially correct he was content.



EDITIONS OF EGYPTIAN TEXTS, TRANSLATIONS, &c.

AMELINEAU, E.—Morale Egyptien. Paris, 1892. 8vo.

BERGMANN, E.—Das Buch vom Durchwandeln der Ewigkeit. Vienna, 1877.

BIRCH, S.—Egyptian Texts from the Coffin of Amamu. London, 1886. Egyptian Hieratic Papyrus of Rameses III. London, 1876.

BREASTED, J.H.—Ancient Records—Egypt. Chicago, 1906.

BRUGSCH, H.—Sieben Jahre der Hungersnoth. Leipzig, 1891. Inscriptio Rosettana. Berlin, 1851. Neue Weltordnung. Berlin, 1881. Reise nach der grossen Oase. Leipzig, 1878. Rhind's zwei Bilingue Papyri. Leipzig, 1865. Shai an Sinsin. Berlin, 1851.

BUDGE, E.A. WALLIS.—Book of the Dead, Egyptian Texts, Translation and Vocabulary, 2nd ed. London, 1909. Papyrus of Ani. London, 1913. Papyri of Hunefer, Anhai, Netchemet, Kersher, and Nu. London, 1899. Hieratic Papyri. Texts and translations. London, 1910. Book of Opening the Mouth, Liturgy of Funerary Offerings, The Book of Am-Tuat, The Book of Gates. London, 1906-1909. Legends of the Gods. London, 1912. Annals of Nubian Kings. London, 1912. Greenfield Papyrus. 1912.

DE HORRACK, P.J.—Les Lamentations d'Isis. Paris, 1866.

ERMAN, A.—Gespraech eines Lebensmueden. Berlin, 1896. Die Maerchen des Papyrus Westcar. Berlin, 1890.

GARDINER, A.H.—Egyptian Hieratic Texts, Part I. Leipzig, 1911. The Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage. Leipzig, 1909. Die Erzaehlung des Sinuhe. Leipzig, 1904. Die Klagen des Bauern. Leipzig, 1908.

GREBAUT, E.—Hymne a Ammon-Ra. Paris, 1874.

GRIFFITH, F. Ll.—Stories of the High Priests of Memphis. Oxford, 1900.

GOLENISCHEFF, W.—Die Metternichstele. Leipzig, 1877. Le Conte du Naufrage. Cairo, 1912. Les Papyrus Hieratiques. St. Petersburg, 1913.

JOACHIM, H.—Papyros Ebers. Berlin, 1890.

LEFEBURE, E.—Le Mythe Osirien. Paris, 1874. Traduction comparee des Hymnes. Paris, 1868.

LEGRAIN, G.—Livre des Transformations. Paris, 1890.

LIEBLEIN, J.—Le livre Egyptien, Que mon nom. Leipzig, 1895.

MASPERO, G.—Contes Populaires. Paris, 1912. Une enquete judiciaire. Paris, 1872. Etudes Egyptiennes. Tomm. I, II. Paris, 1883. Du Genre Epistolaire. Paris, 1872. Hymne au Nil. Paris, 1868, and Cairo, 1912. Inscriptions des Pyramides de Saqqarah. Paris, 1894. Memoire sur quelques Papyrus. Paris, 1875. Les Memoires de Sinouhit. Cairo, 1908.

MOeLLER, G.—Die beiden Totenpapyrus Rhind. Leipzig, 1913.

MORET, A.—Le Rituel du Culte Divin. Paris, 1902.

MUeLLER, W.M.—Die Liebespoesie der alten Aegypter. Leipzig, 1899.

NAVILLE, E.—Das Aegyptische Todtenbuch. Berlin, 1886. La Litanie du Soleil. Leipzig, 1875. Papyrus Funeraires de la XXIe dynastie. Paris, 1912. Textes relatifs an Mythe Horus. Geneva, 1870.

SCHACK-SCHACKENBURG, H.—Das Buch von den zwei Wegen. Leipzig, 1903.

SCHAeFER, H.—Die Aethiopische Koeniginschrift. Leipzig, 1901. Ein Bruchstueck altaegyptischer Annalen. Berlin, 1902.

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SPIEGELBERG, W.—Der Sagenkreis des Koenigs Petubastis. Leipzig, 1910. Das Demotische Totenbuch. Leipzig, 1910. Der Papyrus Libbey. Strassburg, 1907. Rechnungen aus der Zeit Setis I. Strassburg, 1896.

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INDEX

Aa, 159, 165 Aakheperenra, 103, 144 Aakheperkara, 142, 145 Aamu, 108, 128, 161, 163 Aapep, 48, 68 Aapepi, 254 Aataka, 114 Aat-Beqt, 151 Aatti, 141, 142 Abana, 140 Abhat, 136 Abtu Fish, 48 Abu, 73, 83, 86, 87, 128, 130, 132, 165 —products of, 85 Abydos, 44, 45, 47, 65, 99, 127, 138, 245, 246, 249 valley of, 200 Acacia, 46, 61, 201 and river, 202 cut down, 203, 206 Acacias, the two, 205 Africanus, 98 Aged God, 15, 48 Ahnas al-Madinah, 170 Aina, 113 Air-god, 16 air supply, 43 Akert, 44, 46, 65, 115, 221 Akeru, 21 Akhet, 62, 64, 134, 151, 155 Aku, 156 Alasa, 194 Ale, 19 Alexander the Great, 71 —II, 250 Alexandria, 88 Library of, 98 Al-Kab, 140, 143 Altar stands, 147 Am, 90 Amam, 128, 132, 133, 134 Am-as, 13 Amasis I, 140, 143 —the naval officer, 140 ff. Amasis Pen-Nekheb, 143 ff. Amen, 60, 67, 70, 93, 103, 104, 105, 111, 117, 146, 147, 185, 187, 188, 189, 193, 194, 216, 217, 219, 220, 247 —Father, 119 —of Siwah, 71 Amenemhat I, 155, 162 —II, 155 —III, 99 Amen-hetep I, 142, 144 Ameni Amen-aa, 213 —Amenemhat, 135 ff Amen-ka-mutef, 218 Amen-Ra; 68, 76, 106, 110, 115, 145, 148, 164, 185, 186, 189, 190, 192, 193, 218, 219, 249, 250 Hymn to, 214 ff. Amen-shefit, 147 Amentamat, 186, 187, 192 Amentet, 46, 49, 50, 61, 149, 153, 164 Amenti, 248 Amenuserhat, 190 Ames sceptre, 215 Amhet, 49 Am-khent, 13 Ammaau, 134 Ammon, 67, 71 Ammuiansha, 157, 161 Amsu, 151 Amtes, 128 Amulets, 41, 43, 246 Am-urtet, 153 An, 45, 46, 63, 65 An instrument, 15 Anatomy, 252 Ancestor-god, 70 Anebuheq, 156 Ani; 216, 218 Maxims of, 228 papyrus of, 44, 45 Ankh Psemthek, 88 Ankh-taui, 151, 152 Ankhu, 238 Anmutef, 20 Annals of Thothmes III, 104 Annana, 207 Anointing, 13 Anpu, 15, 69, 196, 197 ff. Anqet, 85 Anrekh, 64 Anrutef, 47, 81 Ant Fish, 48 Antchmer, 155 Antef, 137, 138 Antes, 46 Antet Boat, 218 Anti, 142, 143 Antiu, 106, 109, 141 Antti Boat, 222 Antuf, 242 Anu (Heliopolis), 15, 20, 24, 36, 37, 43, 45, 48, 61, 214, 217, 218, 220, 222 Anubis, 15, 33, 50, 60, 69, 149 Ape-gods, 49 Apes, 212 spirits of dawn, 218 Apet, 29, 30, 32 Aphroditopolis, 128, 130 Apollinopolis, 78 Apts, 118, 143, 147, 148, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218 Apuur, 236, 239, 240 Aqen, 101 Aqert, 64 Ara, 132 Arabia, 93, 215 Aram Naharayim, 109 Archers (stars), 21 Arm rings, 23 Arniau, 154 Aroeris, 164 Arsu, 110 Arthet, 128, 131, 133 Artheth, 133 Asbatau, 112 Asemt, 142 Ashtoreth, 78 Asi, 108 Asia, 108 Asiatics, 108, 238 Asri, 170 Ass, eater of, 48 Assa, 4, 134, 135, 224 Asten, 2 Astronomy, 1 Aswan, 83, 131 Atef Crown, 54, 111, 115, 215 Atem, 61, 67 Aten, 61, 62 Athettaui, 166 Athi-taui, 117 Aukehek, 144 Aukert, 54 Aunab, 90 Ausares, 68 Avaris, 140, 141, 256

Baba, 53 Badhilu, 185 Baiufra, 27, 29 Balance; 23, 54 heaven weighed in; 47 keeper of, 50 —of Truth, 247 Bandlets, 16, 23 Baqanau, 112 Barber, 251 Barley, 34, 45 Bata, 196, 197, 204, 205 Baurtet, 134, 135 Beautiful Face, 218, 220 Beer, 203 drinking of, 229 —of Hathor, 73 Bees, 251 Beetle, sacred, 91 Befen, 88 Befent, 89 Behutet, 82 Bekhten, Princess of, 92 ff. Benben Stone, 216, 217 Beni-hasan, 135 Bentresht, 93, 95 Benu bird, 43, 45, 91 Bequests, 254 Betti, 56 Betu incense, 28 Birds, sacred, 52 Black Fiends, 68 Blacks, 128, 129 character of, 102 edict against, 101, 102 hand of, 110 Blacksmiths, 78, 81, 251 Blasphemy, 53, 72 Blood in beer, 73 of Isis, 56 Boat, magical, 43 —of Amen, 191 —of Amen-Ra, 185, 193 Boat of Millions of Years, 77, 91, 92 —of Ra; 123 two Boats of Ra, 123 —of Ra-Harmakhis, 78 —of the Sun, 234, 246 Book, Am Tuat, 244 —boxes, 7 —"May my name," 250 —of Aapep, 250 —of Breathings, 40, 59 ff. —of Gates, 246 —of knowing how Ra, 68 —of making splendid, 64 ff. —of Opening the Mouth, 13, 38 —of overthrowing Aapepi, 67 ff. —of Proverbs, 224 —of Psalms, 241 —of slaying the Hippopotamus, 78 —of the Dead; 4, 6, 29, 37 ff. 41 the Recensions of, 39 ff. summary of Chapters of, 42 ff. Graeco-Roman Books, 59 ff. hieratic, 4 hieroglyphic, 40 —of the Two Ways, 244 —of Traversing Eternity, 40, 61 —of Wisdom, 224 Books, 2 magical, 30 —of Thoth, 2 study of, 230 Bread cakes, 45 Bronze, 238 Brugsch, Dr. H., 9 Builder, 251 Bull, the ship, 140 —skin of, 14 Bulls, sacrifice of, 15 Burial, 232 Bushel, 52 Busiris, 39, 44, 46, 61 Buto, 92 Byblos, 186, 187, 195, 238 Byssus, 191, 243

Cairo, 4, 15, 169 Cake for journey, 17 Cakes, 19 Calf, sucking, 14 Canopus, 112 Caravans, 119 Carnelian, 238 Cataract, first, 73, 83, 116 Cedar, oil of, 18 wood of, 185 Champollion, J.F., 37, 92 Charcoal, 6 Charms, 41 Chattering, 229 Cheops, 25, 27 Children of Horus, 220 Christianity in Egypt, 39 Christians, Egyptian, 7, 68 Circuit of Great Circuit, 109 City of Amen, 220 —Eternity, 161 Cleopatra, 183 Coffins, inscribed, 4 Collar, 16 amulet of, 43 Coming forth by day, 43 Company of gods, the great, 218 Conspiracy, 254 Copper, 114 sulphate of, 6 Coptos, 113, 136 Copts, 7, 68 Cord for land measuring, 85 Cord-master, 22 Cow-goddess, 73, 74 Cow, the celestial, 74 Creation, story of, 67 ff. Crocodile-god, 175 Crocodile of W.E.S. and N., 57 —waxen, 25-7 seizes a servant, 35, 36 transformation into, 43 spells against, 42 Crocodilopolis, 124 Crown, the Double, 80 the Red, 23 the White, 23, 215, 216 Crusher of bones, 53 Cush, 102, 142 Cymbals, 33 Cyprus, 108, 194

Dance, 134 Dancing women, 33 Darkness, 68 Daughters of Nile-god, 220 Day, 17 right eye of Ra, 220 Days, lucky and unlucky, 253 Dead hand, 224, 244 —the blessed, 244 Death, 234 god of, 14, 43, 154 messenger of, 229 the second, 43, 44 Decapitation, 43 Deceit, 46, 47 Deeds, good, 230 Dekans, the Thirty-Six, 46, 62 Delta, 39, 44, 57, 77, 79, 81, 82, 92, 102, 105, 117, 128, 237, 245, 254 Demotic writing, 1 Der al-Bahari, 146 Destiny, 220 Dhir, 185, 186 Diligence, 227 Diocletian, 97 Disk, 165, 200 Dissection, 252 Documents, legal, 7 Dog-god, 15 Dog-star, 20, 24 D'Orbiney, 196 Double, the, 11, 16 Drafts, 7 Drunkard, 228, 229 Dwarf, 91 dancing, 133 Dyer,252

Earth-god, 22, 24, 44, 47, 69 Earth Serpent, 221 —the wife of Ra, 220 East, Souls of, 43 Ebers, Dr. G., 252 Ebony box, 26 —paddles, 28 Ecclesiasticus, 224 Edfu, 77, 78, 82 Egypt, invasion of, 116 ff. wisdom of, 2 Eight gods, 120 Eileithyiaspolis, 43, 47, 140 Elephantine, 83, 102, 128, 130, 132, 165 Elephants' tusks, 212 Elysian Fields, 40, 41, 42, 45 Embalmment, ritual of, 247 Endowments, 254 Enemies in Tuat, 42 Enemy, Serpent, 47 Envoy, 251 Erman, Prof. E., 25 Euphrates, 108 Eusebius, 98 Evening Boat, 48 Evil, god of, 2 Executioner of Osiris, 43 Eye of Horus, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 24, the two eyes, 17 —of Khepera, 70 —of Ra, 46, 55, 72, 223 —of Nebertcher, 69 Eye paint, 13, 212 Eyes of Ra, 248

Falcon, 21 Famine, the Seven Years', 83 Farafrah, 169 Farmer, 226, 251 Father Ra, 123 Fayyum, 121 Fenkhu, 102, 164 Ferryman, the celestial, 43 Festival Songs of Isis and Nephthys, 62 Festivals, duty of keeping, 228 Field of Offerings, 24, 60 —grasshoppers, 54, 60 Fields of Turquoise, 64 Fig tree, 241 Fire, 232, 245 —House of, 215 —Island of, 43 —Lake of, 22 Flint, box of, 32 Fog-fiend, 68 Followers of Horus, 48, 78 Food celestial, 47 Foods, 11 Fountain of the Sun, 123 Fowler, 252 Frog-goddess, 33 Funeral, Chapter of, 42 Funerary Ritual, 37

Gardiner, Mr. A.H., 240 Gates of Tuat, 60 Gazelle, 15 Gebel Barkal, 116, 119, 125 Geese, 15, 20 Gizah, 126 Glue for papyrus, 6 Goatskin, 4 God, 238 devotion to, 231 origin of, 42 Gods, Great Company of, 15 —Legends of; 71 ff. of cardinal points, 21 origin of, 217 the Eighteen, 20 the Forty-two, 51 the Two Great, 24 God-house, 147, 148 Gold, 48 from Sudan; 135 of valour, 140, 141 Goose, 89 a dead, restored, 31 Gourds, 209 Grain, an emanation of Ra, 220 Granite, 85, 131 Grants of land, 254 Great Bear, 20 —Circuit, 108 —Door, 188, 206 —Gate, 163 —God, 50 —Judgment, 50, 53, 247 —Green, 109, 113, 123, 217 —Hall, 60, 218 —Hawk, 218 —High Mouth, 111 —House, 15, 83, 161, 166, 215 —River, 112 —Scales, 50 —Throne, 147 Greyhounds, 212 Gum, 6

Hair of Bata's wife, 202 Hait, 185 Hall of Keb, 60, 248 —of Judgment, 50, 247 —of Maati, 51, 53 —of Shu, 60 —of Truth, 55, 60, 248 —of Tuat, 42 Hammamat, 113 Hap-Asar, 149 Happiness, 232 Harmakhis, 46, 248 Harper, Song of, 242 Harris Papyrus, No. 1, 110 —No. 500, 241, 242, 254 Hasau, 112 Hathaba, 194 Hathor, 21, 72, 73, 114, 134, 164, 165, 248, 253 —month of, 253 —Sekhmet, 72 Hathors, the Seven, 202 Hatshepset, 145 Haughtiness, 226 Haunebu, 102 Hawk, golden; 43 divine, 43 the Great, 91 Hawks, 20 Head, lifting up of, 44 Headsman of Osiris, 43 Heart, 50 amulet of the, 42 of Bata, 201 of bull, 15 Chapters of, 42 of a man, 230 restoration of, 44 Heart-scarabs, 51 Heat in body, 44 Heaven, solar, 39 Heavens, the Two, 23 Heben, 79 Hebit, 248 Hebrews, 241 Heh, 101 Height, 19 Heliopolis, 15, 24, 32, 36, 39, 43, 46, 48, 52, 61, 70, 72, 123, 220, 222, 235, 245, 248 Heliopolitans, 67 Hememet, 219 Hensu, 47, 53, 73, 117, 121, 170, 171, 175 Henu Boat, 46 Hep, 85, 86, 176 Heqet, 33, 34 Herakleopolis, 47, 73, 81, 117, 121, 170, 171, 175 Herankh, 149, 150, 151 Herfhaf, 54 Her-Heru, 186, 190, 193 Herit, 156 Herkemmaat, 56 Herkhuf, autobiography of, 131 ff. Hermonthis, 123 Hermopolis, 39, 43, 50, 53, 60, 84, 117, 119 Parva, 85 Hermopolitans, 67 Heron, 43 Hert, 19 Herua, 207 Heru-Behutet, Legend of, 78 ff. Heru-uatu, 166 Heruemheb, 254 Heru-Hekenu, 77 Herukhentisemti, 114 Heru-Khuti, 45, 46, 111, 220 Herushefit, 178 Herutataf, 29, 30, 31, 33, 50, 242 Heru-ur, 164 Het Benben, 123 —Benu, 117-19 Hetkaptah, 45, 112, 149, 220 Het-neter-Sebek, 117 Het Nub, 130, 131, 146 Hetra, 247 Het Sekhmet, 34 —Suten, 117 Het Uart, 140 Hieratic writing, 1 Hieroglyphic writing, 1 Hieroglyphs, 220 Hippopotami, 78 Holy Land, 45 —of Holies, 146 Honey, 159 Horizon, 30 Horus, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 33, 44, 48, 53, 56, 65, 69, 77, 80, 85, 88, 91, 110, 111, 137, 149, 151, 162, 164, 165, 218, 220, 254, birth of, 90 children of, 221 —of Behutet, Legend of, 77 ff. —of the East, 164, 218 —stung and restored to life, 90, 92 Horus-Set, 14 Horus the Slayer, 104 House, building of, 43 —of Amen, 113 —of Benben, 216 —of Books, 98 —of Fire, 215 —of Ka of Seker, 149 —of Life, 84 —of Seneferu, 100 —of Shent, 154 Humility, 227 Hunefer, Papyrus of, 45 Hyksos, 254 Hymn, funerary, 47 in praise of learning, 250 —to Nut, 18 to Ra, 18 Hymns to gods, 12, 214-21

Ibis-god, 84 Illahun, 121 Imhetep, 84, 129, 242 Immortality, 38 Imouthis, 84 Incantations, 41 Incarnation, 11, 13, 249 Incense, 13, 218 Ink, 6 red and black, 4 Ink-pots, 7 Iron, 15 spear and chain, 78 Isis, 33, 34, 43, 46, 65, 69, 75, 80, 81, 85, 88, 89, 91, 92, 97, 109, 149 —and Ra, Legend of, 74 ff. Isis, blood of, 56 —speech of, 63 —wanderings of, 87 ff. Island of Elephantine, 83 —of Fire, 43 —of Osiris, 54 Islands of the Blest, 244 —Mediterranean, 164 Israel, 224, 240 It, 151

Jackal-God, 15 Joppa, capture of, 254 Joseph, 83 Judge of the dead, 2 Judges, the Forty-two, 42, 52 ff. Judgment Hall of Osiris, 42 —the Great, 2

KA, 11, 16 of Osiris, 45 Kaau, 128 Kadesh, 104 Kaheni, 123 Kamur, 157 Kamutef, 76, 214 Karnak, 118, 147, 148, 214, 215 Kash, 102, 103, 114, 135, 142, 144, 207 Keb, 13, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24, 33, 44, 60, 62, 72, 74, 85, 111, 151, 220 Keeper of the Balance, 50 Kefti, 108 Kenset, 146 Kepuna, 186, 238 Kerkut, 20 Kersher, 59 Ketu, 108 Khaemennefer, 140 Khaemuast, 192 Khafra, 25, 36 Khahap, 151, 154 Khakaura, 101 Khakhepersenb, 235, 236 Khakhut, 146 Khanefer Merenra, 130, 131 Khanes, 170 Khartum, 102 Kharu, 185 Khemenu, 22, 92, 95 Khensu-nefer-hetep, Legend of, 92 ff. Khensu-paari-sekherenuast, 95 ff. Khenthennefer, 141, 142 Khentiaaush, 164 Khent Keshu, 164 Khenti Amentiu, 65 Khepera, 47, 55, 68, 69, 70, 76, 121, 215 Kheperkara, 135, 162 Khepra-Set, 111 Kheprer, 19 Kheraha, 46, 53, 218 Kher-Heb priest, 13, 25, 27, 63, 84, 131, 132, 151 Khert Nefer, 132, 148 Khet, 142 Khnemetast, 155 Khnemet-heru, 142 Khnemu; 33, 34, 39, 43, 50, 60, 137, 151, 201, 202, 222, 238 Legend of, 83 ff. Khuenanpu, story of, 169 ff. Khufu, 25, 27, 29, 30, 35, 36, 50, 242 Khuna, 133 Khut serpent, 108 Khuti, 218 Kina, 104 King an incarnation of God, 11 Kingdom of Osiris, 42, 45 Kummah, 101 Kutut, 112

Labu, 112 Ladder, 21 Lady of Plague, 175 —of the Stars, 167 Lake of Fire, 22 —of Kamur, 157 —of Neserser, 220 —of the North, 79 —of Seneferu, 156 —of Truth, 54 Lamentations; 238 of Isis and Nephthys, 62 Land of the Blacks, 100 —of everlasting Life, 41 —of Oxen, 169 —of Souls, 247 —of Spirits, 134 —of the God, 108, 113, 125 Lapis-lazuli, 50, 64, 218, 238 powdered, 6 Lasmersekni, 117 Laughter, 238 Law, the, 254 Law-goddess, 47 Lepsius, Dr. R., 28, 37 Letopolis, 91, 151 Letopolites, 32 Letters, business, 7 Leyden, 237, 242 Learning, value of, 250 Lebanon, 189, 190, 191 Library, 8 of Heliopolis, 154 Libyans, 109, 112, 156 Lies, 40 Life, everlasting, 44, 55 —fluid of, 16 Light-god, 43, 46 Light-soul, 74 Lightning, 250 Lime, white, 6 Limestone, slabs of, for writing upon, 7 Lion, 32 Lists, 7 Litany, 45 of Osiris, 42 Liturgy of Funerary Offerings, 16, 17, 38 —of Opening the Mouth, 13 Lord of Silence, 171 —of Truth, 183 —of Winds, 54 Lotus, 43 Louvre, 247 Love Songs, 241 Luck, 220 Luxor, 118, 148, 215, 252 temple of, 93

Maat, 44, 47, 48 Maatet, 88, 89 Maati, the Two, 51 Maatka, 126 Maatkara, 144, 145, 146 Magic, 26, 252, 253 Magical papyri, 252 Magicians, stories of, 25 ff. Maka, 164 Makamaru, 186 Maker of Truth, 218 Malachite, 27 Mandrakes, 73 Manetho, 98 Mankind, destruction of, 71 Manu, Land of, 47, 48 Mariette, A., 10 Mashuashau, 112 Maspero, Prof. G., 10 Matcha, 128, 131 Matchau, 214 Matet, 123 Mathematics, 254 Maxims of Ani, 228 Medicine, 252 Mediterranean, 79, 83, 109 Megiddo, Conquest of, 103 Mehen, 215, 218 Mehetch, 135, 136 Mehturit, 76 Mekes, 215 Mekher, 133 Melons, 209 Memory, 42 Memphis, 25, 45, 84, 112, 121, 122, 127, 133, 149, 151, 152, 153, 220, 224, 225, 245 capture of, 122 cakes of, 62 Men, creation of, 74, 217 Menats, 167 Menes, 38 Menkabuta, 185 Menkaura, 4, 36, 38, 50, 126 Menkheperra, 144, 145 Menth, 123 Menthu, 104, 161, 164, 165 Mentiu, 141 Menu, 151, 164 Menu-Amen, 215 Menus, 164 Mera, 86 Meremaptu, 207 Merenra, 9, 130, 131, 132 Mernat, 170 Mer-Tem, 117 Mertet-Ament, 79 Meru, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 178, 184 Mesentiu, 13 Meskha, 23 instrument, 15 Meskhenet, 33, 34 Mesopotamia, 6, 92, 106, 144 Messiah, 237 Mest, 123 Mestet, 88, 89 Mestetef, 88, 89 Mesu Betshet, 48 Metal workers, 251 Meter, 83, 84 ff. Methen, 109 Metternich Stele, 88 Mist, 68 Mitani, 109 Monkeys, 212 Monsters, 246 Moon, creation of, 69 Moon-god, 48 Moral character, 231 —rectitude, 246 Morning Boat, 47, 48 —Star, 24 Mother, duty to, 230 Mouth, Opening the, 11, 13, 42 Muhammad Ali, 88 Muller, 7 Mummification, 247 Mummy, 55 chamber, 40, 42 Murder, 52 Mycerinus, 38 Myrrh, 168, 211, 218

Nak serpent, 215 Name, a word of power, 69 —of Ra, 75 Napata, 119, 125 Natron, 14, 218 incense of, 38 Nau, 57 Nebertcher, 44, 49, 53, 68, 69, 70, 121, 162, 167 Nebka, 25, 26, 27 Nebkaura, 173, 184 Nebpehtira, 140, 144 Nebt Amehet, 164 —Ankh, 218 —hetepet, 248 Nebun, 88 Necklaces, 147 Nectanebus I, 88, 246 Neferbaiu, 164 Neferefra, 127 Nefer-hetep, 242 Neferit, 155 Neferkara, 134 Nefert, 169 Nefert-ari-kara, 127 Neferu Ra, 93-144 Nefrus, 117 Negative Confession, 61 Nehai, 248 Neharina, 143, 144 Nehern, 92, 106 Neith, 124 Neka, 220 Nekau, 156, 222 Nekheb, 127, 131, 140 Nekhebet, 60, 79, 82, 162, 248 Nekhen, 43, 47, 127, 128, 131 Nekhtnebtepnefer, 139 Nemart, 117, 119, 120 Nemes, 215 Nephthys, 33, 34, 69, 85, 90, 91, 109, 149 speech of, 63 Neserser, 220 Neshem Boat, 60 Nessubanebtet, 185, 186, 188, 191 Net to snare souls, 43 Netchemtchemankh, 85 Night, 17 left eye of Ra, 220 Nile, 47, 65, 76, 82, 84, 85, 112, 122, 123, 165, 216, 220, 221, 237 the celestial, 23 floods of, 136, 137 god of, 86, 176, 220 heights of, 100 springs of, 83 water of, 5 Nine Bows, 106 —Gods, 111, 214 Nomes, 238 the Forty-two, 51 North Island, 129 Nose, 53 Nu, 24, 68, 69, 72, 86, 220 Nubia, 77, 78, 82, 83, 97, 102, 103, 106, 114, 116, 125, 135, 142, 144, 145, 146, 208 Nubians, 119, 155, 214, 215, 218 Nubt, 167 Nubti, 123, 220 Numbers, invention of, 1 Nut, 16, 18, 20, 33, 44, 46, 47, 69, 72, 74, 85, 164 as a cow, 73

Oasis of Farafrah, 169 —of Siwah, 71 Obedience, 227 Obelisks, 147 Ochre, 6 Offerings, efficacy of, 38, 247 to God, 230 Oils, 18 Ombos, 123 On (see Anu), 15, 217 One, 217 Onions, 17 Opening of the Mouth, 152 Opportunity, 228 Orion, 23 Osiris, 14, 15, 21, 22, 24, 33, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 50, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 64, 67, 69, 85, 111, 151, 153, 163, 171, 244, 246 accused by Set, 2 death and resurrection of, 12 Hymn to, 42, 44, 45, 221 Island of, 54 Khenti Amenti, 61, 127 Litany to, 42 murder of, 87 mummy of, 91 tomb of, 81 Un-Nefer, 44 Other World, 10, 11, 16, 17, 42, 45, 216, 219, 244 guides to, 224 Oxyrrhynchus, 119

Paints, 6 Palermo Stone, 99 Palestine, 254 Palette, 2, 6 Panopolis, 151 Panther skins, 212 Paper, Egyptian, 4 Papyrus, 4, 191 how made into paper, 5 swamps, 88 Parchment, 4, 7 Pasherenptah, 152 Pa-Sui, 88 Pat beings, 206, 218 Patchetku, 140 Pautti, 57, 68, 222, 223 Pectoral amulet, 147 Pellegrini, 100 Pe, 43 Pen, quill, or steel, 7 Pen-Amen, 191, 192 Pepi I, 9, 18, 19, 24, 127 —II, 9, 133 Perfefa, 170 Perfumer, 243 Per-Metchet, 117-19 Pernebtepahet, 117 Per-pek, 119 Per-Rehu, 79 Persea Tree, 54 Per Sekhem Kheper Ra, 117 Perseverance, 230 Pert, 32, 80, 101, 153 Pesh-Kef, 13 Pet, 19 Pe-Tep, 43, 92 Peta-Bast, 152, 153 Petamennebtnesttaui, 124 Peten, 157 Petet, 88, 89 Pharaoh, 93, 127, 189, 202 Pharaohs, 71 Pharmuthi, 253 Philae, 102 Phoenicia, 108 Phoenix, 45 Piankhi invades Egypt, 116 ff. Picture writing, 1 Pillow amulet, 43 Planets, 62 Pleasure, 243 Ploughing, 197 Poetical compositions, 241 Polisher, 6 Pomegranate, 241 Pool of the South, 54 Potsherds, 7 Power of Powers, 23 Prayers, 41 for the dead, 12 Priests, funerary, 9 Prisse d'Avennes, 92 Prophets, Hebrew, 200 Ptah, 25, 43, 60, 67, 70, 84, 111, 121, 151, 152, 153, 214, 219, 220, 248 Ptah-hetep, 225, 228 Precepts of, 224 Ptah-Seker-Osiris, 40 Ptah-Seker-Tem, 45 Ptah-Shepses, 126 Ptolemais, 151 Ptolemy II, 98 —Philopator, 149 Puarma, 117, 224 Pumpkins, 209 Punt, 113, 134, 135, 147, 164, 211, 214, 215 Purastau, 112 Pygmy, 133, 134 Pylons of Tuat, 42 Pyramid, the Great, 242 —Texts, 9, 38 Pyramids, 36, 238 futility of, 232

Qaiqashau, 112 Qakabu, 207 Qanefer, 155 Qarabana, 112 Qebti, 136 Qebtit, 113 Qehequ, 112, 114 Qerti, 53, 85 Qetem, 157, 162 Qetma, 164 Qett, 113

Ra, 18, 20, 21, 24, 32, 34, 36, 39, 43, 47, 48, 54, 55, 58, 60, 61, 62, 64, 67, 69, 71, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 80, 84, 85, 89, 91, 92, 103, 111, 115, 116, 123, 146, 149, 162, 164, 165, 167, 176, 199, 214, 215, 216, 218, 219, 222, 234, 236, 253 titles of, 75 Ra and Isis, Legend of, 74 —three sons of, 33-6 —Will of, 253 Raau, 127 Ra Harmakhis, 77, 199, 200, 201, 202, 222 Rain clouds, 68 Ra-Khepera, 221 Ram, 91 Ram-god, 152 Rameses II, 92, 96, 99 —III, 254 summary of reign of, 110 ff. —IV, 115, 116 —IX, 192 Raqet, 149, 153 Raqetit, 149 Rastau, 43, 49, 53, 54, 153 Rauser, 33, 34, 35 Reant, 140 Re-birth, 14 Receipts, 7 Recensions of Book of the Dead, 39 Red Country, 138 —Fiends, 68 —Mountain, 156 —Sea, 113, 208 —water, 51 Reed for writing, 2, 7, 6 Register, 85 of heaven, 2 Reincarnation, 70 Rekhit, 216 Rekhti, 137 Rennet, 86 Rensi, 170-84 Respect for elders, 229 Resurrection, 59, 62, 88 Retenu, 108 Rethenu, 143 Rhind Papyrus, 253, 254 Ritual of Divine Cult, 248, 249 —of Embalmment, 247 River and Acacia, 202 Robbery of temples, 51 Romances, 254 Rubric, 56 Rut-tetet, 32-6

Sa, 216 Sacrifices, 247 Saah, 23 Saara, 112 Sahal, 83 Sahu, 14 Sahura, 126 Sais, 122, 124, 245 Sakhabu, 32 Sakkarah, 4, 9, 10, 245 Salt Papyrus, 253 Salvation, 59 Sameref, 13 Sanctuary of God, 229 Sandals, town of, 88 Sanehat, travels of, 155 ff. Sapti, 32 Sarabit al-Khadim, 208 Satet, 141 Satiu, 156, 157 Scarab, the heart, 50 Scents, 11 Sceptre; 14 amulet of, 43 School, 231 schools, 7 Scorpions, the Seven, 88 Scribe, 2, 230, 257 Scriptures, 7 Seal, clay, 7 Seasons, 1 Sea of Truth, 172 Seba, a devil, 48, 63, 215, 223 Sebek, 164 Sebur, 15 Sehetepabra, 155, 157 Seker, 43, 44, 46, 49, 221 —Boat, 46 —Osiris, 149 Sekhem, 91, 151 Sekhet Aaru, 41, 45, 74 —Hemat, 169, 170, 184 —Hetep, 41, 74 Sekhmet, 157, 175, 248 Sektet, 123 —Boat, 218 Sekti, 73 Sem, 13 Seman, 14 Semnah, 101 Semsuu, 164 Semt Ament, 44 Semti, 38 Seneferu, 27, 28, 29, 100, 156 Senmut, 208 Senut, 151 Sep, 13 Sept, 57, 85 Septet, 20 Seqenenra, 140, 254 Serapis, 149 Serpent 30 cubits long, 209 Serpents, spells against, 43 Serqet, 57, 91, 220 Set, 13, 15, 18, 20, 21, 33, 48, 65, 68, 69, 79, 80, 81, 87, 88, 90, 92, 218, 220 —vilifies Osiris, 2 Setcher, 128 Setem, 63 Seti I, 71, 99, 246, 247, 249 Set-nekht, 111 Setu, 133 Shadow, 192 Shaiqaemanu, 123 Shaiu, 112 Sharhana, 141 Shartanau, 110, 112, 114 Shasu, 112, 144 Sheepskin, 4 Shekh of caravans, 131 Shemmu, 76, 151, 152 Shemit, 50 Shent, 154 Shepherd of Israel, 240 Shepseskaf, 126 Shert, 129 Shesmu, 22 Ship, 208 wreck of, 208 Shipwrecked traveller, story of, 207 ff. Shoemaker, 252 Shu, 16, 60, 61, 69, 72, 74, 85, 86, 220 —Hymn to, 222 Sidon, 189 Silence, 227, 231 Silver-gold, 146 Sinai, 102, 114, 145, 208 Sistra, 33, 167 Siwah, 71 Six Great Houses, 127 Skin for writing, 4, 7 Sky-goddess, 18, 20, 44, 47, 69 Slaughter, 43 Smait fiends, 81 Smamiu, 65 Smaur, 24 Smen, 21, 248 Smen Heru, 151 Smendes, 185 Smer, 13 Snakes, 43 Soane Museum, 247 Solomon, 224 Somaliland, 93, 215 Song of Solomon, 241 —the Harper, 242 Sothis, 20, 24, 85 Soul, 46 of God, 43 of Ra, 45 of Shu, 61 rejoining body, 43 talk with, 231 Souls of Anu, 20, 43 of East, 43 of Khemenu, 43 of Nekhen, 43 of Pe, 43 of West, 43 Spells, 12, 41, 250 against crocodiles, 57 engraved, 43 Spirit-soul, 18, 44 Spirit-souls, 22 the Four, 21 Spirits, evil, 246 of heaven, 61 —of offerings, 11 Stanley, Sir H.M., 25 Star-gods, 21, 46 Stars, 62 imperishable, 24 Sti, 141 Stinking Face, 53, 80 Stone for writing upon, 4 Stonemason, 251 Stone of Abu, 85 of Truth, 60 Stone-splitter, 25 Storm, 208 Storm-god, 189 Stumbling in Tuat, 43 Sudan, 4, 100, 133, 145, 165, 207, 215 Sin, 49 Sui, 56 Sun-god, 15, 18, 19, 39, 57, 68, 70, 199, 200, 245, 250 Hymn to, 42, 220 Sutekh, 189 Suten ta hetep, 149 Swallow, 43 Sycamore, 89, 241 Syene, 165 Symbols, writing, 1 Syria, 102, 108, 114, 125, 129, 143, 185, 192, 238

Table of Offerings, 18 Taboo, 51, 56, 57 Tafnekht, 117, 119, 121, 123, 124 Taha, 88 Taherstanef, 44 Tait, 113 Taiutchait, 117 Tale of Two Brothers, 196 ff. Talismans, 147 Talk, subjects of, 230 Tamera, 53, 110, 111, 112, 164, 167 Tambourines, 64 women, 152 Tanauna, 112 Tanis, 81, 185 Tashenatit, 59 Taskmasters, 50 Taste, 220 Ta-sti, 77, 106, 109 Ta-tchesert, 47, 48, 64 Ta-tehen, 119 Ta-Tenn, 115 Tatu (Busiris), 44, 45, 46, 61 Tatunen, 47 Tax gatherers, 7 Tchah, 108, 144 Tchakar-Bal, 186, 193 Tchakaru, 185, 194 Tchal, 81 Tchan, 185 Tchar, 81 Tchatchamankh, 27, 28, 29, 34, 36 Tchatchau, 50, 164 Tcheser, 242 and famine, 183 Tcheserkara, 142, 144 Tcheser tcheseru, 146 Tcheser-tep, 22 Tefen, 88, 89 Tefnut, 18, 69, 72, 89, 220, 222 Tehnah, 119 Tehuti (god), 1 —autobiography of, 145 ff. —em heb, 93 —Nekht, 170-4 Tem, Temu, 19, 22, 39, 56, 57, 60, 67, 76, 77, 91, 111, 116, 121, 123, 164, 215, 218, 221, 223 Temple of Aged One, 48 —of Millions of Years, 146 Temple of the Soul, 47 Temu-Heru-Khuti, 217 Temu Khepera, 218 Tenen, 154 Tep, 253 Terres, 133 Tet amulet of Isis, 43, 56 —pillar, 43, 151 Teta, 9, 127 —the magician, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 36 Tetaan, 142 Tet-Seneferu, 29, 30 Thaiemhetep, 149 ff. Thakra, 112 Thebans, 67 Thebes, 68, 79, 92, 93, 104, 109, 118, 119, 161, 165, 194, 219, 220, 241, 242, 245, 249 Thehenu, 109, 156; oil of, 18 Thekansh, 117 Themeh, 128, 133, 157 Themehu, 156 Thenn, 165 Thennu, 159, 160, 162 Thent Amen, 185, 188, 191 —Mut, 194 Thenttaamu, 141 Thes, 138 Thest, 129 Thetet, 88, 89 Thetha, Autobiography of, 137 ff. Thieves, prosecution of, 254 This, 138 Thoth, 1-4, 13, 29, 30, 32, 37, 43, 45, 47, 48, 50, 55, 56, 60, 61, 67, 78, 82, 84, 87, 88, 91, 92, 120, 151, 176, 207, 218, 220, 222, 248 city of, 39 Thothmes I, 103, 144, 145 —II, 102, 103, 144 —III, 99, 103, 106, 144, 145, 154 Throne, crystal, 24 Thunders, 250 Thunderstorm, 18 Tomb, 42, 242 Tongue, 230 Transformations, 43 Transmutation of offerings, 17, 49 Tree of Life, 220 Triad, 69 Truth, 47, 48, 66, 218, 221, 236, 249 Truth, goddess of, 61 —Hall of, 60 —Lake of, 54 —Stone of, 60 Tuat, 11, 41, 43, 60, 61, 115, 219, 244, 245, 247 chamber, 17, 123, 151 described, 40, 56 Tuataua ships, 100 Tuauf, Precepts of, 250 Tuf, 20 Turin Papyri, 37, 99 Turquoise, 238 Two Brothers, the, 109, 196 —ears of king, 151 —eyes of king, 151 —Lands, 115 —Men, 218 —Sisters, 109 —Treasuries, 148 Tyre, 186

Uahankh, 137, 138, 139 Uarkathar, 189 Uart, 129 Uartha, 186 Uasheshu, 112 Uatchet, 60, 79, 82, 162 Uatch-merti, 57 Uatchti, 215 Uauat, 128, 131, 208 Uauatet, 77, 82, 84 Ubaaner, 25, 26, 27, 36 Uhat, 133 Un, 119 Una, Autobiography of, 127 ff. Unas, 9, 18, 20, 21, 22 Understanding, 220 Unguents, the Seven, 13, 243 Un-Nefer, 44, 45, 46, 51, 63, 65, 67 Unti, 40 Unuamen, Travels of, 185 ff. Upuatu, 21 Ur-kherp-hem, 152, 153 Urmau, 32 Urrit, 164 Urrt Crown, 15, 46, 215, 216 Userhat, 185 Userkaf, 36, 126 Userenra, 127 Usert, 89 Usertsen I, 135, 155 —III, 99, 101, 152 Uthentiu, 109

Valley of Acacia, 200, 201, 203 Vegetation, 70 Venus, 24 Vignettes of Book of the Dead, 39 Vital power, 11 Vulture amulet, 43

Wadi an-Natrun, 169 Wadi Halfah, 101 —Magharah, 208 Washerman, 252 Water, boiling, 43 celestial, 216 holy, 60, 66 offering, 229 supply, 43 fowl, 19 Wax figures, 68 Weighing of words, 22 West, souls of, 43 Westcar Papyrus, 25 Wheat, 45 Whip, 215 Whirlwind, 250 White Wall, 121, 151, 153 Wife, burning of a, 27 duties to, 227 Wine, 17 Winged Disk, 77 Wisdom, 227 Wolf-god, 57 Woman, the strange, 228 Wood for writing upon, 4 Words, ill-natured, 230 of power, 41, 42, 75, 246 Work, importance of, 227 to avoid, 42 Worms in tomb, 43 Writing, boards for, 7 exercises in, 7 three kinds of, 1 ff. sacred, 1 materials, 4

Zoan, 81, 185



Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & Co. at Paul's Work, Edinburgh

THE END