LIVY, xxi. 7.

[Linenotes: 2. quam cetera (sc. loca) circa = than the neighbouring country. 4-5. ut ... ita = lit. as ... so, i.e. although ... yet ... 6. postquam ... ventum est = when they came to attack the wall in earnest. Effectum (verbal noun in us) = the completion of the work, i.e. the bringing up of the ram. —Dimsdale. 8. ut in suspecto loco = as (was natural) in a suspected (i.e. weak) spot. —Capes. 11-12. nec quicquam ... pati = they allowed those engaged on the works no sort of safety, lit. not (even) moderate safety. —D. 18. adversum femur = in the front of the thigh.]

SAGUNTUM (Murviedro = muri veteres) in Hispania Tarraconensis (about 20 miles S. of Valencia) was supposed to have been founded by Greek colonists from Zacynthos (Zante). In 226 B.C. Rome made an alliance with Saguntum and Hasdrubal was informed of the fact. Hannibal attacked the city ostensibly on the ground of its having molested subject-allies of Carthage, but really because he was unwilling to leave a strong city in his rear, and wished to obtain funds. After an eight months' siege and a heroic defence, characteristic of Spanish towns, it was taken by storm 219 B.C.

Nec pavet hic populus (Massilia) pro libertate subire Obsessum Poeno gessit quod Marte Saguntum.

LUCAN, Phars. iii. 349-50.

Cf. also Juv. Sat. xv. 113-14, and the siege of Saragossa, 1808 A.D.

C12

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

A. The Dream of Hannibal.

Hannibalem Coelius scribit, cum cepisset Saguntum, visum esse in somnis a Iove in deorum concilium vocari; quo cum venisset, Iovem imperasse ut Italiae bellum inferret, ducemque ei unum e concilio datum: quo illum utentem cum exercitu progredi {5} coepisse; tum ei ducem illum praecepisse ne respiceret; illum autem id diutius facere non potuisse elatumque cupiditate respexisse: tum visam belluam vastam et immanem, circumplicatam serpentibus, quacunque incederet, omnia arbusta, virgulta, tecta {10} pervertere.

CICERO, De Divinatione, i. 24,49.

[Linenotes: 1. Coelius, i.e. L. Coelius Antipater (acontemporary of C. Gracchus 123 B.C.), wrote Annales, which contained a valuable account of the Second Punic War. Livy borrows largely from his narrative. 7. id ... non potuisse. Cf. Livy 'temperare oculis nequivisse = he could not restrain his eyes.' 8. cupiditate = from curiosity. Cf. Livy 'cura ingeni humani = with the natural curiosity of the human mind.' 8-11. visam belluam ... pervertere = he thought he saw a monster overthrowing.]

B. The Interpretation—Vastitatem esse Italiae.

Hoc trepidus monstro ... ardua quae sit, 198...200 Scitatur, pestis, terrasque urgentia membra Quo ferat et quosnam populos deposcat hiatu. Cui gelidis almae Cyllenes editus antris: 'Bella vides optata tibi: te maxima bella, Te strages nemorum, te moto turbida caelo 205 Tempestas, caedesque virum, magnaeque ruinae Idaei generis, lacrimosaque fata sequuntur. Quantus per campos populatis montibus actus Contorquet silvas squalenti tergore serpens, Et late umectat terras spumante veneno: 210 Tantus, perdomitis decurrens Alpibus atro Involves bello Italiam, tantoque fragore Eruta convulsis prosternes oppida muris.'

SILIUS ITALICUS, iii. 198-213.

[Linenotes: 202. hiatu = with its wide-open mouth. 203. Cyllenes, i.e. Mt. Cyllene (Zyria), the highest point in the Peloponnesus, on the borders of Arcadia and Achaia, where Hermes is said to have been born: hence styled Cyllenius. 209. tergore = tergo. poet. and post-Augustian.]

Parallel Passage. Livy xxi. 22, and cf. Polybius iii.47.

C13

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

From the Pyrenees to the Rhone. Passage of the Elephants.

Elephantorum traiciendorum varia consilia fuisse credo, certe variat memoria actae rei.... Ceterum magis constat ratibus traiectos esse elephantos. Ratem unam ducentos longam pedes quinquaginta latam a terra in amnem porrexerunt, quam, ne {5} secunda aqua deferretur, pluribus validis retinaculis parte superiore ripae religatam pontis in modum humo iniecta constraverunt, ut beluae audacter velut per solum ingrederentur. Altera ratis aeque lata, longa pedes centum, ad traiciendum flumen apta, {10} huic copulata est; tum elephanti per stabilem ratem tamquam viam praegredientibus feminis acti ubi in minorem applicatam transgressi sunt, extemplo resolutis, quibus leviter annexa erat, vinculis ab actuariis aliquot navibus ad alteram ripam pertrahitur. Ita {15} primis expositis alii deinde repetiti ac traiecti sunt. Nihil sane trepidabant, donec continenti velut ponte agerentur; primus erat pavor, cum soluta ab ceteris rate in altum raperentur. Ibi urgentes inter se cedentibus extremis ab aqua trepidationis aliquantum {20} edebant, donec quietem ipse timor circumspectantibus aquam fecisset. Excidere etiam saevientes quidam in flumen; sed pondere ipso stabilis deiectis rectoribus quaerendis pedetemptim vadis in terram evasere. {25}

LIVY, xxi. 28.

[Linenotes: 2. variat ... rei = the accounts of what was done differ. —Dimsdale. 7. parte superiore ... pontis = fastened to the upper part of the bank, i.e. to the bank at a point higher up stream. —D. 9. per solum = on firm ground. 14. ab actuariis = by some light craft, lit. 'Easily moved' (ago). 17-18. donec ... agerentur = So long as they were being driven on what seemed a bridge connected with the land. —C. and B. Agebantur would be more usual, but agerentur may give the reason of nihil trepidabant. Cf. donec—fecisset ll. 21-22. 19. in altum = into mid stream, usu. of the Sea. —D. inter se = one on another, alii alios. 24. quaerendis pedetemptim vadis = feeling their way into shallow water. pedetemptim = step by step, lit. 'stretching out the feet' (pes + tendo). Cf. paulatim, sensim.]

Reference. Polybius, iii. 46. Both Polybius and Livy thought that elephants could not swim.

C14

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

From the Rhone to Italy. Hannibal encourages his Soldiers.

Itaque Hannibal, postquam ipsi sententia stetit pergere ire atque Italiam petere, advocata contione varie militum versat animos castigando adhortandoque: mirari se, quinam pectora semper impavida repens terror invaserit.... Alpes quidem habitari, coli, {5} gignere atque alere animantes; pervias fauces esse exercitibus. Eos ipsos, quos cernant, legatos non pinnis sublime elatos Alpes transgressos. Ne maiores quidem eorum indigenas, sed advenas Italiae cultores has ipsas Alpes ingentibus saepe agminibus cum {10} liberis ac coniugibus migrantium modo tuto transmisisse. Militi quidem armato nihil secum praeter instrumenta belli portanti quid invium aut inexsuperabile esse? Saguntum ut caperetur, quid per octo menses periculi, quid laboris exhaustum esse! {15} Romam, caput orbis terrarum, petentibus quicquam adeo asperum atque arduum videri, quod inceptum moretur? Cepisse quondam Gallos ea, quae adiri posse Poenus desperet. Proinde aut cederent animo atque virtute genti per eos dies totiens ab se victae, {20} aut itineris finem sperent campum interiacentem Tiberi ac moenibus Romanis.

LIVY, xxi. 30.

[Linenotes: 2-3. varie ... versat = works on their minds by different methods, i.e. castigando adhortandoque.—Dimsdale. 4-5. repens terror. Livy says that H.'s soldiers dreaded the Romans (victorious in the 1st Punic War), but still more the exaggerated and unknown terrors of the Alps. 7. Eos ipsos legatos, i.e. of the Boii (Insubrian Gauls), long settled in Gallia Cisalpina (round Mediolanum = Milan). 9. advenas Italiae cultores = foreign settlers in Italy. advenas = adj. here. —D. 11. migrantium modo = as immigrants. 16. Romam caput orbis. A rhetorical exaggeration, for Rome was not yet mistress even of all Italy (e.g. the Boii not subdued until 191 B.C.). 18. Cepisse Gallos. The Gauls sacked Rome 390 B.C. 20. genti ... victae, e.g. at the Passage of the Rhone. 21. campum, i.e. the Campus Martius, N.W. of Rome, where the Tiber makes a wide curve. For the thought cf. p. 116, ll. 7,8.] [[Selection C9, lines 155, 156]]

The Speeches of Livy. 'He does not intend in them to reproduce the substance of words actually spoken, or even to imitate the tone of the time in which the speech is laid. He uses them as a vivid and dramatic method of portraying character and motive.' —Mackail.

C15

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

From the Rhone to Italy. The Descent of the Alps.

Natura locus iam ante praeceps recenti lapsu terrae in pedum mille admodum altitudinem abruptus erat.... Tandem nequiquam iumentis atque hominibus fatigatis castra in iugo posita, aegerrime ad id ipsum loco purgato: tantum nivis fodiendum atque {5} egerendum fuit. Inde ad rupem muniendam, per quam unam via esse poterat, milites ducti, cum caedendum esset saxum, arboribus circa immanibus deiectis detruncatisque struem ingentem lignorum faciunt, eamque, cum et vis venti apta faciendo igni {10} coorta esset, succendunt ardentiaque saxa infuso aceto putrefaciunt. Ita torridam incendio rupem ferro pandunt, molliuntque anfractibus modicis clivos, ut non iumenta solum sed elephanti etiam deduci possent. Quadriduum circa rupem consumptum {15} iumentis prope fame absumptis; nuda enim fere cacumina sunt, et, si quid est pabuli, obruunt nives. Inferiora valles apricosque quosdam colles habent rivosque prope silvas et iam humano cultu digniora loca. Ibi iumenta in pabulum missa, et quies {20} muniendo fessis hominibus data. Triduo inde ad planum descensum iam et locis mollioribus et accolarum ingeniis.

LIVY, xxi. 36, 37.

Context. At a short distance from the summit of the Pass (prob. the Little St. Bernard) Hannibal finds his passage barred by a break in the road, caused by a landslip or avalanche.

[Linenotes: 2-3. in pedum ... abruptus erat. Polybius says that the precipice at the side of the road (leaving only a narrow ledge) extended for about 1000 ft. in length. Livy in mistake converts this into 1000 ft. in depth. 3-4. Tandem ... fatigatis, i.e. after H.'s attempt to pass by a side-way over a glacier failed. 4. in iugo, i.e. on the higher level where the road was broken away. 6. ad rupem muniendam = to cut a way through the rock. Munire (cf. moenia) = lit. 'to wall,' 'to build.' So munire viam = to make a road. Hannibal widened the narrow ledge of road by making a sort of terrace. 9. detruncatis = trimmed, (lit. 'lopped off'), i.e. cleared of branches. 11-12. infuso aceto. Limestone rock might be softened by vinegar, which the posca, the soldiers' regular drink of vinegar and water, would supply. Polybius does not mention this. 13-14. molliuntque ... clivos = relieve the steepness of the descent by gently-sloping zigzag paths. Anfractus, from ambi + frango.]

References. Polybius, iii. 54-56; Ihne, i. 171-179.

C16

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

A. The Battle at the R. Trebia, 218 B.C.

Hannibal, cum ad Trebiam in conspectu haberet Semproni Longi consulis castra, medio amne interfluente, saevissima hieme Magonem et electos in insidiis posuit. Deinde Numidas equites ad eliciendam Semproni credulitatem adequitare vallo eius {5} iussit, quibus praeceperat, ut ad primum nostrorum incursum per nota refugerent vada. Hos consul et adortus temere et secutus ieiunum exercitum in maximo frigore transitu fluminis rigefecit: mox torpore et inedia adfectis Hannibal suum militem {10} opposuit, quem ad id ignibus oleoque et cibo foverat; nec defuit partibus Mago, quin terga hostium in hoc ordinatus caederet.

FRONTINUS, Strategemata, ii. 5.23.

[Linenotes: 1. ad Trebiam, a small tributary S. of the Padus, which it joins 2 miles W. of Placentia (Piacenza). 2. castra. Ti. Sempronius Longus, with his army from Sicily, effected a junction with his colleague, Scipio, in his fortified camp on the W. or left bank of the Trebia. 8-9. ieiunum ... rigefecit, i.e. Sempronius made stiff (rigefecit) with wading breast-high across the icy river his men faint with hunger (ieiunum). 11. oleoque, i.e. ut mollirent artus = to make their limbs supple. 12-13. nec defuit ... caederet. The Romans kept their ground with the utmost courage till Mago burst out from his ambush and attacked them in rear.]

B. The River bars the Retreat.

Et iam, dispersis Romana per agmina signis, 570 Palantes agit, ad ripas, miserabile! Poenus Impellens trepidos, fluvioque immergere certat. Tum Trebia infausto nova proelia gurgite fessis Incohat, ac precibus Iunonis suscitat undas. Haurit subsidens fugientum corpora tellus, 575 Infidaque soli frustrata voragine sorbet. Nec niti lentoque datur convellere limo Mersa pedum penitus vestigia: labe tenaci Haerent devincti gressus, resolutaque ripa Implicat aut caeca prosternit fraude paludis. 580

SILIUS ITALICUS, iv. 570-580.

[Linenotes: 574. precibus ... undas. The poet, in his imitation of Vergil, makes Juno the devoted ally of Hannibal. 576. soli frustrata = prevented from reaching firm ground. 577. lento = sticky. 579. resoluta = crumbling.]

References. Livy, xxi. 52-56; Ihne, ii. 187-191.

C17

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B.C.(1)

Flaminius cum pridie solis occasu ad lacum pervenisset, inexplorato postero die vixdum satis certa luce angustiis superatis, postquam in patentiorem campum pandi agmen coepit, id tantum hostium, quod ex adverso erat, conspexit; ab tergo ac super {5} caput haud[29] detectae insidiae. Poenus ubi, id quod petierat, clausum lacu ac montibus et circumfusum suis copiis habuit hostem, signum omnibus dat simul invadendi. Qui ubi, qua cuique proximum fuit, decucurrerunt, eo magis Romanis subita atque improvisa {10} res fuit, quod orta ex lacu nebula campo quam montibus densior sederat, agminaque hostium ex pluribus collibus ipsa inter se satis conspecta eoque magis pariter decucurrerant. Romanus clamore prius undique orto, quam satis cerneret, se circumventum {15} esse sensit, et ante in frontem lateraque pugnari coeptum est, quam satis instrueretur acies aut expediri arma stringique gladii possent. Consul perculsis omnibus ipse satis, ut[30] in re trepida, impavidus turbatos ordines, vertente se quoque ad dissonos {20} clamores, instruit, ut tempus locusque patitur, et, quacunque adire audirique potest, adhortatur ac stare ac pugnare iubet. {25}

LIVY, xxii. 4, 5.

[Footnote 29: Var. lect. decepere.]

[Footnote 30: For this qualifying use of ut cf. p. 42, iii. (b) and p. 83 line1.] [[Demonstration IV.iii and Selection D24]]

[Linenotes: 1. Flaminius (Gaius), the chief of the popular party at Rome. Consul 223 B.C., conquered the Insubrian Gauls, Censor 220 B.C. Connected Picenum with Rome by the Via Flaminia. Consul (asecond time) 217 B.C., defeated and killed at Trasimene. 2. inexplorato = without reconnoitring. 'This word expresses the whole blame attaching to Flaminius, and it is great.' —Dimsdale. 4. pandi (= se pandere) = to deploy. 13. ipsa ... conspecta = were sufficiently visible to each other. 15. prius quam satis cerneret = before he could clearly distinguish anything. —D. 19. ut in re trepida = considering the confusion of the moment. —D.]

The Scene of the Battle. At the N.W. end of the Lake the mountains of Cortona come right down to the lake, but a little further E. the pass expands and forms between the mountains and the lake a narrow plain from to 1 miles in width and about 4 miles in length. At the E. end of the plain the mountains again close down upon the lake. Here Hannibal encamped with his Africans and Spaniards; posted his light-armed troops behind the crests of the hills which bounded the plain on the N., and his cavalry at the entrance to the pass on the W. to cut off the Roman retreat.

C18

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B.C.(2)

Ceterum prae strepitu ac tumultu nec consilium nec imperium accipi poterat, tantumque aberat, ut sua signa atque ordines et locum noscerent, ut vix ad arma capienda aptandaque pugnae competeret animus, opprimerenturque quidam onerati magis iis {5} quam tecti. Et erat in tanta caligine maior usus aurium quam oculorum. Ad gemitus vulneratorum ictusque corporum aut armorum et mixtos strepentium[31] paventiumque clamores circumferebant ora oculosque. Alii fugientes pugnantium globo illati {10} haerebant; alios redeuntes in pugnam avertebat fugientium agmen. Deinde, ubi in omnes partes nequiquam impetus capti, et ab lateribus montes ac lacus, afronte et ab tergo hostium acies claudebant, apparuitque nullam nisi in dextera ferroque salutis {15} spem esse, tum sibi quisque dux adhortatorque factus ad rem gerendam et nova de integro exorta pugna est, non illa ordinata per principes hastatosque ac triarios, nec ut pro signis antesignani, post signa alia pugnaret acies; fors conglobabat et animus suus {20} cuique ante aut post pugnandi ordinem dabat; tantusque fuit ardor animorum, adeo intentus pugnae animus, ut eum motum terrae, qui multarum urbium Italiae magnas partes prostravit, nemo pugnantium senserit. {25}

LIVY, xxii. 5.

[Footnote 31: Var. lect. terrentium = of those causing fear.]

[Linenotes: 4. ad arma capienda aptandaque = to seize and put on for the battle their arms. —Dimsdale. 5. onerati: i.e. most were cut down in their full marching equipment. 8-9. mixtos ... clamores = the mingled shouts of noisy triumph (strepentium) or dismay. 10. pugnantium ... haerebant = rushed upon a knot (globo) of combatants, and became entangled with it. —Jebb. 14. a fronte, i.e. by Hannibal's African and Spanish infantry. ab tergo, i.e. by Hannibal's cavalry and the Gauls. 18-19. non illa ... triarios = not in that well-known (illa) mode of fighting (sc. pugna) arranged according to.... Livy refers to the old mode of formation (said to have been introduced by Camillus) of i. hastati, of young men, ii. principes, of men at their prime, iii. triarii, of middle-aged men.]

References: Polybius, iii. 82-84; Ihne, Hist. vol, i. pp. 204-10.

C19

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B.C.(3)

The Death of Flaminius.

Dumque ea commemorat densosque obit obvius hostes, Advolat ora ferus mentemque Ducarius. Acri 645 Nomen erat gentile viro, fusisque catervis Boiorum quondam patriis, antiqua gerebat Vulnera barbaricae mentis, noscensque superbi Victoris vultus, 'Tune, inquit, maximus ille Boiorum terror? libet hoc cognoscere telo, 650 Corporis an tanti manet de vulnere sanguis. Nec vos poeniteat, populares, fortibus umbris Hoc mactare caput: nostros hic curribus egit Insistens victos alta ad Capitolia patres. Ultrix hora vocat.' Pariter tunc undique fusis 655 Obruitur telis, nimboque mente per auras Contectus nulli dextra iactare reliquit Flaminium cecidisse sua. Nec pugna perempto Ulterior ductore fuit; namque agmine denso Primores iuvenum, laeva ob discrimina Martis 660 Infensi superis dextrisque, et cernere Poenum Victorem plus morte rati, super ocius omnes Membra ducis stratosque artus certamine magno Telaque corporaque et non fausto Marte cruentas Iniecere manus. Sic densi caedis acervo 665 Ceu tumulo, texere virum.

SILIUS ITALICUS, v. 644-666.

[Linenotes: 644. Dum ... hostes, i.e. after Flaminius' vain attempt to rally and form his men, and his consequent resolve to atone for his fault (inexplorato[32] angustiis superatis) with his life. 646. Ducarius—Livy, 'an Insubrian (Lombard) trooper.' 651. mnet = will flow. Cf. emanate. 652. populares = fellow-countrymen, but of Romans usu. civis. 658-666. Livy says more simply 'He (Ducarius) was trying to despoil the corpse, when some veterans screened it with their shields.' 660. laeva = unfavourable, lit. 'on the left side.' Cf. sinister.]

[Footnote 32: See p. 124, l. 2, note.] [[Selection C17, "inexplorato"]]

Parallel Passages.—Livy, xxii. 6; Polyb. iii.84.

Character of Flaminius. 'The party feelings which have so coloured the language of the ancient writers (e.g. Livy, Polybius) respecting him need not be shared by a modern historian. Flaminius was indeed an unequal antagonist to Hannibal; but, in his previous life, as Consul and as Censor, he had served his country well; and if the defile of Trasimene witnessed his rashness, it also contains his honourable grave.' Arnold, Hist. Rome, iii. 110.

C20

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Quintus Fabus Maximus Cunctator.

Ego Q. Maximum, eum qui Tarentum recepit, senem adulescens ita dilexi, ut aequalem. Erat enim in illo viro comitate condita gravitas, nec senectus mores mutaverat.... Hic et bella gerebat ut adulescens, cum plane grandis esset, et Hannibalem {5} iuveniliter exsultantem patientia sua molliebat; de quo praeclare familiaris noster Ennius:

Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem; Noenum rumores ponebat ante salutem; Ergo plusque magisque viri nunc gloria claret. 10

Nec vero in armis praestantior quam in toga; qui consul iterum, Sp. Carvilio collega quiescente, C. Flaminio tribuno plebis, quoad potuit, restitit agrum Picentem et Gallicum viritim contra senatus auctoritatem dividenti.... Multa in eo viro praeclara {15} cognovi, sed nihil admirabilius quam quo modo ille mortem fili tulit, clari viri et consularis. Est in manibus laudatio, quam eum legimus, quem philosophum non contemnimus? Nec vero ille in luce modo atque in oculis civium magnus, sed intus {20} domique praestantior.

CICERO, De Senectute, 10-12.

[Linenotes: 1. Ego, i.e. M. Porcius Cato, the famous Censor of 184 B.C. eum qui Tarentum recepit. Tarentum was betrayed to Hannibal 212 B.C. and recovered by Fabius 209 B.C. 2-3. Erat ... gravitas = that hero possessed dignity tempered by courtesy. —J. S. R. condita (condio) = lit. seasoned. 5. grandis, sc. natu. He was consul for a first time in 233 B.C. 6. iuveniliter. Hannibal was 29 when he crossed the Alps. exsultantem = wildly roaming, of a horse galloping at will. 7. noster Ennius, circ. 239-169 B.C., famous espec. for his Annales in Hexameter verse. He was the first Latin writer to use this metre. 9. Noenum (ne + oinum = not one thing) = non. Cf. nihil = ne + hilum = not a whit, nothing. 12-14. Flaminius, when tribune 232 B.C., by a vote of the Comitia Tributa (i.e. by a plebiscitum) and against the expressed wish of the Senate (contra senatus auctoritatem) carried an agrarian law for the division of public land in Picenum amongst Roman citizens. 18. laudatio, sc. funebris, the funeral speech. 19-20. in luce ... civium = in public and under the gaze of his fellow-countrymen. —J. S.R.]

References. Polybius, iii. 89, 90; Livy, xxii. 12; Plutarch, Fabius,vi.

C21

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Fabius and his Master of the Horse, 217 B.C.

Ita per variam fortunam diei maiore parte exacta cum in castra reditum esset, Minucius convocatis militibus 'Saepe ego' inquit 'audivi, milites, eum primum esse virum, qui ipse consulat, quid in rem sit, secundum eum, qui bene monenti oboediat; qui {5} nec ipse consulere nec alteri parere sciat, eum extremi ingenii esse. Nobis quoniam prima animi ingeniique negata sors est, secundam ac mediam teneamus et, dum imperare discimus, parere prudenti in animum inducamus. Castra cum Fabio iungamus; ad praetorium {10} eius signa cum tulerimus, ubi ego eum parentem appellavero, quod beneficio erga nos ac maiestate eius dignum est, vos, milites, eos, quorum vos modo arma ac dexterae texerunt, patronos salutabitis, et, si nihil aliud, gratorum certe nobis {15} animorum gloriam dies hic dederit.' Signo dato conclamatur inde, ut colligantur vasa. Profecti et agmine incedentes ad dictatoris castra in admirationem et ipsum et omnes, qui circa erant, converterunt. {20}

LIVY, xxii. 29, 30.

Context. Fabius' policy of 'masterly inactivity' had become so unpopular at Rome that the command of the army was divided between Fabius and Minucius, who risked a battle, and was only saved from a destruction as complete as that of the Trebia by the timely aid of Fabius. Minucius publicly and fully atones for his rashness.

[Linenotes: 4. consulat = can give counsel—so consulere l.6. 6-7. extremi ingenii = has the meanest capacity. gen. of quality. 7-8. prima ... sors est = the highest rank in the scale of spirit and intellect. —Dimsdale. 14. patronos = as the authors of your freedom. Patronus = legal title used by a freed slave (libertus) of his former master. The soldiers of Minucius are to think of themselves as liberti, owing their freedom to those of Fabius, who are thus their patroni. 17. ut colligantur vasa, i.e. impedimenta. Cf. signa movere.]

Fabius Cunctator. 'Fabius had to create a new army, to accustom it to war, and to inspire it with courage. He did this skilfully and persistently, and thus he rendered the most essential service that any general could at that time render to the State. It was probably at this time that the Senate voted him a crown of grass (corona graminea), the highest distinction which was awarded to a general who had saved a besieged town.' —Ihne.

C22

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C. CANNAE, 218 B.C.(1)

The Destruction of the Roman Infantry.

Sub equestris finem certaminis coorta est peditum pugna, primo et viribus et animis par, dum constabant ordines Gallis Hispanisque; tandem Romani, diu ac saepe conisi, obliqua fronte acieque densa impulere hostium cuneum nimis tenuem eoque parum {5} validum a cetera prominentem acie. Impulsis deinde ac trepide referentibus pedem institere ac tenore uno per praeceps pavore fugientium agmen in mediam primum aciem illati, postremo nullo resistente ad subsidia Afrorum pervenerunt, qui utrimque reductis {10} alis constiterant media, qua Galli Hispanique steterant, aliquantum prominente acie. Qui cuneus ut pulsus aequavit frontem primum, dein cedendo etiam sinum in medio dedit, Afri circa iam cornua fecerant irruentibusque incaute in medium Romanis circumdedere {15} alas; mox cornua extendendo clausere et ab tergo hostis. Hinc Romani, defuncti nequiquam proelio uno, omissis Gallis Hispanisque, quorum terga ceciderant, adversus Afros integram pugnam ineunt non tantum eo iniquam, quod inclusi adversus {20} circumfusos, sed etiam quod fessi cum recentibus ac vegetis pugnabant.

LIVY, xxii. 47.

[Linenotes: 1. Sub ... certaminis, i.e. at the close of (sub) the first stage in the battle, in which the Roman cavalry were defeated. 2-3. constabant ... Hispanisque. These formed Hannibal's centre, the convex of his semicircular formation of his infantry, with the African troops on the horns of the semicircle to the right and left, but at some distance behind. 4. obliqua fronte, perh. = concave, so as to surround the projecting part of the enemy's line (acetera prominentem acie). 5. cuneum: here = the convex formation of the Gauls and Spaniards. 8-9. in mediam aciem = the centre of the line, i.e. of the Gauls and Spaniards, who were intended to engage with the Romans first. 10. subsidia = reserves, i.e. the Africans, on the right and left. 14-16. Afri circa ... alas. Hannibal's formation is now reversed.[33] The horns (cornua) of the semicircle (the Africans) are now advanced, and outflanked (circumdedere alas) the Romans, who rushed heedlessly into the intervening space (in medium, i.e. the concave part of H.'s line formed by the retirement of the Gauls and Spaniards). 21-22. recentibus ac vegetis = fresh in body and mind.]

[Footnote 33: i.e. the Africans now formed the horns of a crescent in relation to their centre, while it formed the concave part of the crescent. —D.]

Results of the Battle. Hannibal becomes master of Magna Graecia, and the Romans lose (including 23,000 taken prisoners) about 70,000 men.

C23

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C. CANNAE, 216 B.C.(2)

'Paulus animae magnae prodigus.'

Cn. Lentulus tribunus militum cum praetervehens equo sedentem in saxo cruore oppletum consulem vidisset, 'L. Aemili' inquit, 'quem unum insontem culpae cladis hodiernae dei respicere debent, cape hunc equum, dum et tibi virium aliquid superest, {5} et comes ego te tollere possum ac protegere. Ne funestam hanc pugnam morte consulis feceris; etiam sine hoc lacrimarum satis luctusque est.' Ad ea consul: 'Tu quidem, Cn. Corneli, macte virtute esto; sed cave frustra miserando exiguum tempus e {10} manibus hostium evadendi absumas. Abi, nuntia publice patribus, urbem Romanam muniant ac, priusquam victor hostis advenit, praesidiis firment; privatim Q. Fabio L. Aemilium praeceptorum eius memorem et vixisse adhuc et mori. Memet in hac {15} strage militum meorum patere exspirare, ne aut reus iterum e consulatu sim aut accusator oollegae existam, ut alieno crimine innocentiam meam protegam.' Haec eos agentes prius turba fugientium civium, deinde hostes oppressere; consulem ignorantes, {20} quis esset, obruere telis, Lentulum inter tumultum arripuit equus. Tum undique effuse fugiunt.

LIVY, xxii. 49.

[Linenotes: 1. praetervehens equo = riding by. praetervehor used here as a deponent. —Dimsdale. 2. oppletum (= perfusum) = covered (lit. filled up), or drenched. 4. respicere = to look on with favour. —D. 9. macte virtute esto = lit. go on and prosper in your courage. mactus = i. magis + auctus = increased, glorified, or more prob. ii. = old partic. of obsolete mago (= augeo), from [Rt]mak, e.g. in mak-ar. Vocative used as nominative. 14. praeceptorum. His self-sacrifice was not in vain. The tactics of Fabius were again adopted after his death. 15. et vixisse adhuc et mori = died as he had ever lived. —D. 17. reus iterum e consulatu = a second time to stand on my defence in consequence of my consulship, i.e. on a charge that grew out of his acts as Consul (219 B.C.) with M. Livius Salinator of misappropriation of the spoils at the close of the Illyrian War. 18-19. ut ... protegam. The two Consuls had the chief command of the army on alternate days. Varro was in command at Cannae.]

'The overthrow of Cannae was so complete that every other nation but the Romans would have given up the idea of further resistance.' —Ihne.

C24

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C. CANNAE, 216 B.C.(3)

A. Maharbal urges Hannibal to march on Rome.

Hannibali victori cum ceteri circumfusi gratularentur suaderentque, ut tanto perfunctus bello diei quod reliquum esset noctisque insequentis quietem et ipse sibi sumeret et fessis daret militibus, Maharbal praefectus equitum, minime cessandum ratus, 'Immo {5} ut, quid hac pugna sit actum, scias, die quinto' inquit 'victor in Capitolio epulaberis. Sequere: cum equite, ut prius venisse quam venturum sciant, praecedam.' Hannibali nimis laeta res est visa maiorque, quam ut eam statim capere animo posset. Itaque voluntatem {10} se laudare Maharbalis ait; ad consilium pensandum temporis opus esse. Tum Maharbal: 'Non omnia nimirum eidem di dedere; vincere scis, Hannibal, victoria uti nescis.' Mora eius diei satis creditur saluti fuisse urbi atque imperio. {15}

LIVY, xxii. 51.

[Linenotes: 2-4. diei ... sumeret = he should take what remained of that day and the following night for rest. —Church and Brodribb. 8. venisse, sc. te, suggested by sequere. —Dimsdale. 9. res = the idea, i.e. of such a rapid termination to the war. —D. Hannibal was too far off (11 days' march) to take Rome by storm. Its population contained as many soldiers as his army, and the city was strongly fortified by its situation and by art.]

B. Scipio forbids the Nobles to abandon Italy.

Post Cannensem cladem perculsis ita Romanorum animis, ut pars magna reliquiarum nobilissimis auctoribus deserendae Italiae iniret consilium, P. Scipio adulescens admodum impetu facto, in eo ipso in quo talia agitabantur coetu pronuntiavit manu se {20} sua interfecturum, nisi qui iurasset non esse sibi mentem destituendae rei publicae: cumque ipse se primus religione tali obligasset, stricto gladio mortem uni ex proximis minatus, nisi acciperet sacramentum, illum metu, ceteros etiam exemplo coegit ad iurandum. {25}

FRONTINUS, Strat. iv. 7. 39.

[Linenote: 18. P. Scipio adulescens, i.e. P. Corn. Scipio Africanns Maior, fatalis dux huiusce belli, the predestined champion in this war.]

Parallel Passage. Livy, xxii. 53, and cf. Livy, v. 50-55, where Camillus dissuades the commons from migrating to Veii.

C25

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

A. Rome's Heroes.

Regulum et Scauros animaeque magnae Prodigum Paulum superante Poeno Gratus insigni referam Camena Fabriciumque. 40 Hunc et incomptis Curium capillis Utilem bello tulit et Camillum Saeva paupertas et avitus apto Cum lare fundus. 44 Crescit occulto velut arbor aevo Fama Marcelli; micat inter omnes Iulium sidus velut inter ignes Luna minores. 48

HORACE, Odes, I. xii. 37-48.

[Linenotes: 37. Scauros[34] (= Scaurum) = such men as Scaurus. Censor, 100 B.C. 40. Fabricium, who despised the bribes of Pyrrhus. Censor 275 B.C. See p. 101, Fabricius the Just. [[Selection D42]] 43-44. apto cum lare = with homestead to match. —Gow.]

[Footnote 34: Cf. in French, Les Vergiles.]

B. The Dream of Propertius.

Visus eram molli recubans Heliconis in umbra, Bellerophontei qua fluit umor equi, Reges, Alba, tuos et regum facta tuorum, Tantum operis, nervis hiscere posse meis; 4 Parvaque tam magnis admoram fontibus ora, Unde pater sitiens Ennius ante bibit, Et cecini Curios fratres et Horatia pila, Regiaque Aemilia vecta tropaea rate, 8 Victricesque moras Fabii pugnamque sinistram Cannensem et versos ad pia vota deos, Hannibalemque Lares Romana sede fugantes, Anseris et tutum voce fuisse Iovem. 12

PROPERTIUS, III. (IV.) iii. (ii.) 1-12.

Subject:—Propertius had tremblingly touched the mighty fount with his lips (l.5): he dreamed that he essayed, in consequence, to follow the example of Ennius.

[Linenotes: 2. i.e. the Spring of Pirene near Corinth, where Pegasus was caught by Bellerophon. Its waters possessed inspiring properties. 4. nervis ... meis = that I had strength to gasp forth. —Ramsay. 7. Curios = Curiatios. Horatia pila: see pp. 67-68. [[Selections D8, D9]] 8. Aemilia, i.e. of L. Aemilius Paullus (son of the hero of Cannae), victor at Pydna 168 B.C. over Perseus of Macedon. 10. versos ... deos, i.e. the solemn ordinances decreed by Fabius, Dictator after Trasimene, to which the gods turned a ready ear (versos). 12. fuisse, dependent on cecini l. 19. Iovem, i.e. Iovis Capitolini templum. See p.84.] [[Selection D25]]

C26

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

The Revolt of Capua, 216-211 B.C. (1)

A. Capua aspires to rival Rome.

Altera iam teritur bellis civilibus aetas, Suis et ipsa Roma viribus ruit. Quam neque finitimi valuerunt perdere Marsi, Minacis aut Etrusca Porsenae manus, 4 Aemula nec virtus Capuae nec Spartacus acer Novisque rebus infidelis Allobrox, Nec fera caerulea domuit Germania pube Parentibusque abominatus Hannibal: 8 Impia perdemus devoti sanguinis aetas, Ferisque rursus occupabitur solum.

HORACE, Epod. xvi. 1-10.

[Linenotes: 5. Aemula virtus Capuae. In 216 B.C. Capua was, after Rome, the richest and most powerful city in Italy. As the result of Cannae she aspired to dominion over Italy. Spartacus acer, leader of the Servile War, 73-71 B.C. 6. novis rebus infidelis = faithless to revolution, because they assisted in betraying Catiline's plot 63 B.C.—Wickham. 9. impia ... aetas = we an impious generation whose blood is foredoomed (i.e. there is a curse on us) shall destroy (Rome).]

B. Decius Magius defies Hannibal.

Egressus curia Hannibal in templo magistratuum consedit, comprehendique Decium Magium atque ante pedes destitutum causam dicere iussit. Qui cum manente ferocia animi negaret lege foederis id cogi posse, tum iniectae catenae, ducique ante lictorem {15} in castra est iussus. Quoad capite aperto est ductus, contionabundus incessit ad circumfusam undique multitudinem vociferans: 'Habetis libertatem, Campani, quam petistis: foro medio, luce clara, videntibus vobis nulli Campanorum secundus vinctus ad mortem {20} rapior. Quid violentius capta Capua fieret? Ite obviam Hannibali, exornate urbem diemque adventus eius consecrate, ut hunc triumphum de cive vestro spectetis.'

LIVY, xxiii. 10.

Context. After the Revolt of Capua, when Hannibal made a public entry into the city, the whole population, with the exception of Decius Magius and his son, poured out to meet him.

[Linenotes: 11. in templo magistratuum = on the magistrates' bench, (or tribunal). 12. Decium Magium, one of the few Capuan nobles faithful to Rome. 14-15. negaret ... posse = urged that by the terms of the treaty (i.e. between the Capuans andH.) this could not be insisted on. —Church and Brodribb.]

C27

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

The Revolt of Capua, 216-211 B.C. (2)

A. 'Capua,' it is said, 'became Hannibal's Cannae.'

Cum victoria Hannibal posset uti, frui maluit relictaque Roma Campaniam Tarentumque peragrare, ubi mox et ipse et exercitus ardor elanguit adeo ut vere dictum sit Capuam Hannibali Cannas fuisse. Si quidem invictum Alpibus, indomitum armis Campani—quis {5} crederet?—soles et tepentes fontibus Baiae subegerunt.

FLORUS, II. vi. 21-22.

[Linenotes: 2. Campaniam Tarentumque, once the two most fertile districts in Italy. 4. Capuam ... fuisse. Ihne says: 'Whatever may have been the pleasures and indulgences of Hannibal's troops in Capua, their military qualities cannot have suffered by them, as the subsequent history of the war sufficiently demonstrates.' 7-8. tepentes fontibus Baiae, on a small bay west of Naples and opposite Puteoli, abounded in warm mineral springs.]

B. The Punishment of Rebel Capua, 211 B.C.

Ad septuaginta principes senatus interfecti, trecenti ferme nobiles Campani in carcerem conditi; alii per sociorum Latini nominis urbes in custodias {10} dati variis casibus interierunt; multitudo alia civium Campanorum venum data. De urbe agroque reliqua consultatio fuit, quibusdam delendam censentibus urbem praevalidam, propinquam, inimicam. Ceterum praesens utilitas vicit; nam propter agrum, quem {15} omni fertilitate terrae satis constabat primum in Italia esse, urbs servata est, ut esset aliqua aratorum sedes. Urbi frequentandae multitudo incolarum libertinorumque et institorum opificumque retenta; ager omnis et tecta publica populi Romani facta. {20}

LIVY, xxvi. 16.

[Linenotes: 10. sociorum Latini nominis = sociorum ac Latini nominis, which includes all the Italian allies. 'The Nomen Latinum were the members of the old Latin league whose rights were reduced in 338 B.C. after the Latin War.' —Rawlins. 13. delendam. Cf. Cato's Delenda est Carthago. 15-17. agrum ... in Italia esse. Cf. Verg. Georg. ii. 224-5: 'Such is the tilth of wealthy Capua and the coast that borders the Vesuvian ridge.' —Mackail. 18. frequentandae = for the purpose of peopling. 19. institorum = pedlars or dealers. Cf. our 'commercial travellers'. 20. publica ... facta = confiscated. 'This ager publicus was leased by the censors to farmers (aratores) who paid rent (vectigal) for it.' —R.]

C28

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Marcellus at Nola, 216 B.C.

Ad tres portas in hostes versas Marcellus tripertito exercitum instruxit.... Ita instructi intra portas stabant. Hannibali sub signis, id quod per aliquot dies fecerat, ad multum diei in acie stanti primo miraculo esse, quod nec exercitus Romanus {5} porta egrederetur nec armatus quisquam in muris essent. Ratus deinde, prodita colloquia esse, metuque resides factos, partem militum in castra remittit iussos propere apparatum omnem oppugnandae urbis in primam aciem afferre, satis fidens, si cunctantibus {10} instaret, tumultum aliquem in urbe plebem moturam. Dum in sua quisque ministeria discursu trepidat ad prima signa succeditque ad muros acies, patefacta repente porta Marcellus signa canere clamoremque tolli ac pedites primum, deinde equites, quanto {15} maximo possent impetu, in hostem erumpere iubet. Satis terroris tumultusque in aciem mediam intulerant, cum duabus circa portis P. Valerius Flaccus et C. Aurelius in cornua hostium erupere.... Ingens victoria eo die res ac nescio an maxima illo bello gesta {20} est; non vinci enim ab Hannibale tunc diffcilius fuit quam postea vincere.

LIVY, xxiii. 16.

Context. The plebs in Nola (as in Capua) was in favour of joining Hannibal, and it was with difficulty that the nobles (who here, as elsewhere, favoured Rome) delayed the decision, thus gaining time to inform Marcellus, who was then stationed at Casilinum, of the danger of a revolt. Marcellus immediately hastened to Nola, and occupied the town with a strong garrison.

[Linenotes: 3-5. Hannibali ... primo miraculo esse = Hannibal, who ... had his troops under arms till a late hour, was first of all astonished that. —Church and Brodribb. 7. colloquia esse, i.e. his communications (colloquia) with the Carthaginian party in Nola. 8. resĭdes = inactive, lit. that remains sitting (re + sedeo). 10. si cunctantibus instaret = if he met hesitation with prompt action. —Church and Brodribb. Lit. if he pressed upon those hesitating. 12. in sua ... ministeria = to their several posts. 19-21. Ingens ... gesta est = a great victory, the greatest, perhaps throughout the war, was achieved that day.]

Nola, an important town in Campania, S.E. of Capua. It remained faithful to the Romans, even after Cannae, when the other Campanian towns revolted to Hannibal.

Marcellus at Nola. 'It was the merit of Marcellus that he saved Nola from being taken.' —Ihne.

C29

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Cicero's Description of Syracuse.

Urbem Syracusas maximam esse Graecarum urbium pulcherrimamque omnium saepe audistis, Est, indices, ita, ut dicitur: nam et situ est cum munito, tum ex omni aditu vel terra vel mari praeclaro ad aspectum: et portus habet prope in aedificatione {5} aspectuque urbis inclusos: qui cum diversos inter se aditus habeant, in exitu coniunguntur et confluunt. Eorum coniunctione pars oppidi, quae appellatur Insula, mari disiuncta angusto, ponte rursum adiungitur et continetur. Ea tanta est urbs, ut ex {10} quattuor urbibus maximis constare dicatur: quarum una est ea, quam dixi, Insula: quae duobus portubus cincta, in utriusque portus ostium aditumque proiecta est: in qua domus est, quae Hieronis regis fuit, qua praetores uti solent. Altera autem est urbs {15} Syracusis, cui nomen Achradina est: in qua forum maximum, pulcherrimae porticus, ornatissimum prytaneum, amplissima est curia, templumque egregium Iovis Olympii. Tertia est urbs, quae, quod in ea parte Fortunae fanum antiquum fuit, {20} Tycha nominata est, in qua et gymnasium amplissimum est et complures aedes sacrae: coliturque ea pars et habitatur frequentissime. Quarta autem est urbs, quae quia postrema coaedificata est, Neapolis nominatur: quam ad summam theatrum est maximum. {25}

CICERO, In Verrem, ii. 4. 117-119.

[Linenotes: 5-6. prope ... inclusos, a special feature of Syracuse, because many ancient cities were built at some distance from the sea, with a harbour detached from them (e.g. Ostia, the port of Rome), though sometimes joined by long walls, as at Athens. 7. in exitu = at their outlet, i.e. the narrow channel between Ortygia (= Insula) and the mainland which connected the two harbours. 9. disiuncta = separated from the rest (dis—). 12. Insula, i.e. Ortygia, the only part now inhabited. 14. Hieronis regis, King of Syracuse, 270-216 B.C., distinguished by his military ability and the wise policy of his reign. From 263 B.C. till his death, the faithful friend and ally of Rome. 16. Achradina, the mainland N. of Ortygia. At the time of the famous siege of Syracuse by the Athenians, 415-413 B.C., the city consisted only of Ortygia and Achradina. 18. prytaneum = town-hall (prutaneion = the presidents' hall). 25. theatrum est maximum, capable of holding 25,000 people. Of all the buildings described by Cicero as existing in Neapolis, the Theatre alone remains.]

Reference. Freeman's History of Sicily.

C30

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Engineering Skill of Archimedes.

Adversus hunc navalem apparatum Archimedes variae magnitudinis tormenta in muria disposuit. In eas, quae procul erant, naves saxa ingenti pondere emittebat, propiores levioribus eoque magis crebris petebat telis; postremo, ut sui vulnere intacti tela {5} in hostem ingererent, murum ab imo ad summum crebris cubitalibus fere cavis aperuit, per quae cava pars sagittis pars scorpionibus modicis ex occulto petebant hostem. Quae propius quaedam subibant naves, quo interiores ictibus tormentorum essent, in {10} eas tollenone super murum eminente ferrea manus, firmae catenae illigata, cum iniecta prorae esset gravique libramento plumbi recelleret ad solum, suspensa prora navem in puppim statuebat; dein remissa subito velut ex muro cadentem navem cum {15} ingenti trepidatione nautarum ita undae affligebat, ut, etiam si recta reciderat, aliquantum aquae acciperet, Ita maritima oppugnatio est elusa omnisque spes eo versa, ut totis viribus terra aggrederentur. Sed ea quoque pars eodem omni apparatu tormehtorum instructa {20} erat Hieronis impensis curaque per multos annos, Archimedis unica arte.

LIVY, xxiv, 34.

[Linenotes: 1. adversus ... apparatum, i.e. to oppose the elaborate naval attack by Marcellus on the seaward defences of Achradina. 7. cubitalibus fere cavis = with holes (fr. cavum = noun) about 1 feet square, cubitalibus (cubitum) = a cubit long. Polybius has a palm long, about 3 inches. This is more probable. 8. scorpionibus = crossbows or manuballistae. 10. quo interiores ... essent = so as to be too close in to be hit by (intertores ictibus) the engines. 10-12. in eas (sc. proras) iniecta = on their bows was dropped ... 11. tollenone = from a swing beam, supported at the centre of gravity by a strong fixed fulcrum. 12-13. cum (ferrea manus) gravique ... ad solum = lit. when (the grappling-iron) swung back (recelleret) to the ground by a heavyweight of lead. 'This is incorrect; it was not the grappling-iron, but the other (inland) end of the lever which was brought down to the ground.' —Rawlins. 15. remissa (sc. ferrea manus) = the grappling-hook was (then) suddenly letgo. 16. ita undae affligebat = was dashed with such violence on the disturbed water (undae).]

Cause of the War. Soon after the death of Hiero in 216 B.C., his whole family was murdered, and the supreme power in Syracuse fell into the hands of the two brothers, Hippocrates and Epicydes, Hannibal's agents.

C31

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Marcellus laments over Syracuse.

Marcellus ut moenia ingressus ex superioribus locis urbem omnium ferme ilia tempestate pulcherrimam subiectam oculis vidit, illacrimasse dicitur partim gaudio tantae perpetratae rei, partim vetusta gloria urbis. Atheniensium classes demersae et duo {5} ingentes exercitus cum duobus clarissimis ducibus deleti occurrebant et tot bella cum Carthaginiensibus tanto cum discrimine gesta, tot tam opulenti tyranni regesque, praeter ceteros Hiero cum recentissimae memoriae rex, tum ante omnia, quae virtus ei fortunaque {10} sua dederat, beneficiis in populum Romanum insignis. Ea cum universa occurrerent animo subiretque cogitatio, iam illa momento horae arsura omnia et ad cineres reditura, priusquam signa Achradinam admoveret, praemittit Syracusanos, {15} qui intra praesidia Romana fuerant, ut alloquio leni impellerent hostes ad dedendam urbem.... Achradina diripienda militi data est. Cum multa irae, multa avaritiae foeda exempla ederentur, Archimeden memoriae proditum est in tanto tumultu, quantum {20} pavor captae urbis in discursu diripientium militum ciere poterat, intentum formis, quas in pulvere descripserat, ab ignaro milite, quis esset, interfectum; aegre id Marcellum tulisse sepulturaeque curam habitam, et propinquis etiam inquisitis honori praesidioque {25} nomen ac memoriam eius fuisse.

LIVY, xxv. 24, 31.

[Linenotes: 1-2. ex superioribus locis, i.e. from the heights of Epipolae, which he had taken by a night attack, when the Syracusans were celebrating a three days' festival of Artemis. 6. ducibus, e.g. Lamachus, Eurymedon, Demosthenes. 7-8. tot bella ... gesta, e.g. at Himera, 480 B.C., on the same day as Salamis. 8-9. tot tam ... regesque, e.g. Gelo, 485 B.C.; Dionysius the Elder, 406 B.C.; Hiero II., the friend and ally of Rome, King of Syracuse, 270-216 B.C. 8. tyranni, i.e. absolute rulers, despots, with reference rather to the irregular way in which the power was gained, than the way in which it was exercised. 16. qui ... fuerant, i.e. Syracusan deserters who kept up communication with the republican (pro-Roman) party in Syracuse. 22. formis = diagrams. 24. sepulturae. Cf. Demonstration VI, page54.]

The Treatment of Syracuse. It would have been the undying glory of Marcellus if, on obtaining possession, he had shielded the unhappy city from further miseries. The art-treasures of Syracuse were sent to Rome, aprecedent afterwards followed.

C32

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

The Death of Marcellus, 208 B.C.

Exiguum campi ante castra erat; inde in collem aperta undique et conspecta ferebat via. Numidis speculator, nequaquam in spem tantae rei positus, sed si quos vagos pabuli aut lignorum causa longius a castris progressos possent excipere, signum dat, ut {5} pariter ab suis quisque latebris exorerentur. Non ante apparuere, quibus obviis ab iugo ipso consurgendum erat, quam circumiere, qui ab tergo intercluderent viam. Tum undique omnes exorti et clamore sublato impetum fecere. Cum in ea valle {10} consules essent, ut neque evadere possent in iugum occupatum ab hoste nec receptum ab tergo circumventi haberent, extrahi tamen diutius certamen potuisset, ni coepta ab Etruscis fuga pavorem ceteris {15} iniecisset. Non tamen omisere pugnam deserti ab Etruscis Fregellani, donec integri consules hortando ipsique ex parte pugnando rem sustinebant; sed postquam vulneratos ambo consules, Marcellum etiam transfixum lancea prolabentem ex equo moribundum {20} videre, tum et ipsi—perpauci autem supererant—cum Crispino consule duobus iaculis ieto et Marcello adolescente saucio et ipso effugerunt.

LIVY, xxvii. 27.

Context. Marcellus was Consul for a fifth time in 208 B.C. After the attempt to retake Locri (S.E. of Bruttium) was frustrated by Hannibal, Marcellus and his colleague Crispinus faced H. near Venusia in Apulia. Hannibal hoped to bring on a decisive action, but Marcellus adopted Fabian tactics, and himself headed a cavalry reconnaissance to explore the country between the Roman and the Carthaginian camps.

[Linenotes: 2-3. Numidis speculator. A wooded hill lay between the two camps: H. had posted here in ambush some Numidian horsemen. 4-5. si quos possent excipere = on the chance of their being able to intercept. —Stephenson. 6-8. Non ante ... circumiere = those who were to spring on the enemy (lit. those to whom it was necessary to rise in a mass confronting the enemy obviis) from the hill itself did not show themselves until a detachment had made their way round (circumiere).—S. 10. valle = a hollow, i.e. adepression on the Roman side of the hill. 16. Fregellani. Fregellae, atown of the Volsci, on the Via Latina between Rome and Campania, colonised 328 B.C. 17. ipsique ex parte pugnando = taking their share in fighting. —S.]

Character of Marcellus. 'He was a brave soldier, afirm intrepid patriot, and an unflinching enemy of the enemies of Rome, but as a general no match for Hannibal.' —Ihne.

C33

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Character of Scipio Africanus Maior.

Fuit enim Scipio non veris tantum virtutibus mirabilis, sed arte quoque quadam ab iuventa in ostentationem earum compositus, pleraque apud multitudinem aut ut per nocturnas visa species aut velut divinitus mente monita agens, sive et ipse capti {5} quadam superstitione animi, sive ut imperia consiliaque velut sorte oraculi missa sine cunctatione exsequerentur. Ad hoc iam inde ab initio praeparans animos, ex quo togam virilem sumpsit, nullo die prius ullam publicam privatamque rem egit, quam {10} in Capitolium iret, ingressusque aedem consideret et plerumque solus in secreto ibi tempus tereret. Hic mos, quem per omnem vitam servabat, seu consulto seu temere vulgatae opinioni fidem apud quosdam fecit, stirpis eum divinae virum esse. Multa alia {15} eiusdem generis, alia vera, alia assimulata, admirationis humanae in eo iuvene excesserant modum; quibus freta tunc civitas aetati haudquaquam maturae tantam rerum molem tantumque imperium permisit.

LIVY, xxvi. 19.

[Linenotes: 2-3. in ostentationem earum compositus = he made a study (compositus) of displaying them, implying artificiality. —R. 3-5. pleraque ... agens = in most of his dealings (pleraque agens) with the mob (representing his plans) as inspired (visa) by visions in the night or as matters of inspiration (divinitus mente monita). 7. sorte = by an oracular response (which was often written on a little tablet or lot, sors). 11. aedem, i.e. the cella (chapel, the part enclosed within the four side-walls) of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. 13-14. seu consulto seu temere vulgatae = whether designedly or undesignedly spread abroad. 17. humanae = which one has for a mere man. —Rawlins. 19. tantam rerum molem = so stupendous a task. —R. In 212 or 211 B.C. the two brothers, Publius and Gnaeus Scipio, were totally defeated by Hasdrubal and fell at the head of their troops. Scipio, son of this P. Scipio, was in 210 B.C. sent to Spain, at the age of 27, as proconsul in command of a reinforcement of 11,000 men.]

Character of Scipio. 'He was a man far above the average of his contemporaries, and possessed a greatness of mind which could not fail to rivet attention. He differed from the majority of generals by not only daring to conceive bold plans, but by contriving to carry them out.' —Ihne.

C34

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Scipio takes New Carthage, 210 B.C.

Scipio ipse, ut ei nuntiatum est aestum decedere, quod per piscatores Tarraconenses nunc levibus cymbis, nunc, ubi eae siderent, vadis pervagatos stagnum compertum habebat, facilem pedibus ad murum transitum dari, eo secum armatos quingentos {5} duxit. Ubi urbem sine certamine intravere, pergunt inde, quanto maximo cursu poterant, ad eam portam, circa quam omne contractum certamen erat. In quod adeo intenti omnium non animi solum fuere, sed etiam oculi auresque pugnantium spectantiumque {10} et adhortantium pugnantes, ut nemo ante ab tergo senserit captam urbem, quam tela in aversos inciderunt et utrimque ancipitem hostem habebant. Tunc turbatis defensoribus metu et moenia capta, et porta intus forisque pariter refringi coepta; et mox {15} caedendo confectis ac distractis, ne iter impediretur, foribus armati impetum fecerunt.... Quoad dedita arx est, caedes tota urbe passim factae, nec ulli puberum qui obvius fuit parcebatur; tum signo dato caedibus finis factus; ad praedam victores versi, {20} quae ingens omnis generis fuit.

LIVY, xxvi. 45, 46 (sel.)

[Linenotes: 3. vadis pervagatos stagnum = made their way through the pool by wading (vadis). 8. contractum = concentrated (confined). 13. ancipitem = double, twofold, on two opposite sides. 15. intus forisque = both within and without. foris, adv. (an abl. form from an obsolete nom. fora) = out of doors, without. Cf. foras = out through the doors, forth. 16-17. caedendo ... distractis foribus = when the doors were destroyed and broken up by blows.]

Carthago Nova (Carthagena) was founded by Hasdrubal (the uncle of Hannibal) 243 B.C. The city is situated on a promontory running out into the sea, and possesses one of the finest harbours in the world, protected by an island as by a natural breakwater. But it had a weak side, and this had been betrayed by fishermen to Scipio. During ebb-tide the water of the shallow pool W. of the town fell so much that it was fordable and the bottom was firm. Of this Scipio took advantage. He first made a feint attack on the N. wall and then led 500 men across the ford, who scaled the W. wall and opened the nearest gate from the inside.

Result of its Capture. 'New Carthage, the key of Spain, the basis of operations against Italy, and the Carthaginian arsenal, was taken, thus determining the issue of the Spanish War.' —Ihne.

C35

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Nero's famous March to the Metaurus, 207 B.C.

Praemissi (nuntii) per agrum Larinatem Marrucinum Frentanum Praetutianum, qua exercitum ducturus erat, ut omnes ex agris urbibusque commeatus paratos militi ad vescendum in viam deferrent, equos iumentaque alia producerent, ut {5} vehiculorum fessis copia esset. Ipse de toto exercitu civium sociorumque quod roboris erat delegit, sex milia peditum, mille equites.... Et hercule per instructa omnia ordinibus virorum mulierumque undique ex agris effusorum, inter vota ac preces et {10} laudes ibant: illos praesidia rei publicae, vindices urbis Romanae imperiique appellabant; in illorum armis dextrisque suam liberorumque suorum salutem ac libertatem repositam esse. Deos omnes deasque precabantur, ut illis faustum iter, felix pugna, matura {15} ex hostibus victoria esset, damnarenturque ipsi votorum, quae pro iis suscepissent, ut, quem ad modum nunc solliciti prosequerentur eos, ita paucos post dies laeti ovantibus victoria obviam irent. Invitare inde pro se quisque et offerre et fatigare {20} precibus, ut quae ipsis iumentisque usui essent, ab se potissimum sumerent; benigne omnia cumulata dare. Modestia certare milites, ne quid ultra usum necessarium sumerent; nihil morari, nec abscedere ab signis nec subsistere nisi cibum capientes: diem {25} ac noctem ire; vix quod satis ad naturale desiderium corporum esset, quieti dare.

LIVY, xxvii. 43, 45 (sel.)

Context. Nero, on hearing from the captured Numidian horsemen of Hasdrubal's march and plans—to meet Hannibal in Umbria and then to march on Narnia and Rome—with 6000 picked foot and 1000 horse withdrew secretly from his camp before Hannibal at Canusium, and by a forced march joined his colleague Livius at the Metaurus.

[Linenotes: 1-2. Larinatem, etc., districts lying between Apulia and Umbria, but not given in their geographical order. 15. faustum (for favostus, fav-eo) = that which is done under the blessing of the gods: felix = that which succeeds in consequence of having this blessing upon it. —Stephenson. 16-17. damnarentur ... votorum = condemned (to pay) their vows. Cf. Verg. Voti reus = bound to my vow, i.e. bound to fulfilment. 23. Modestia certare (sc. cum iis) ... sumerent = the soldiers were as moderate as they were pressing, refusing to take anything...—S.]

'Nero showed a resolution and a strategic ability which far surpassed the average qualifications of Roman generals.' —Ihne.

C36

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

The Metaurus, 207 B.C.

Fortes creantur fortibus et bonis; Est in iuvencis, est in equis patrum Virtus, neque imbellem feroces Progenerant aquilae columbam; 32 Doctrina sed vim promovet insitam, Rectique cultus pectora roborant; Utcumque defecere mores, Indecorant bene nata culpae. 36 Quid debeas, o Roma, Neronibus, Testis Metaurum flumen et Hasdrubal Devictus et pulcher fugatis Ille dies Latio tenebris, 40 Qui primus alma risit adorea, Dirus per urbes Afer ut Italas Ceu flamma per taedas vel Eurus Per Siculas equitavit undas. 44 Post hoc secundis usque laboribus Romana pubes crevit, et impio Vastata Poenorum tumultu Fana deos habuere rectos. 48

HORACE, Odes, IV. iv. 29-48.

[Linenotes: 29-36. The thought is: 'It is true that scions of a good stock must be good in men as well as in animals, but yet education (doctrina = training l.33) brings out the innate force.' 29. fortibus et bonis. For the combined epithets cf. kalos kagathos. 36. Indecorant ... culpae = faults disfigure (indecorant = dedecorant) scions of an honourable stock (bene nata). 37. Neronibus, e.g. M. Claudius Nero (the hero of Metaurus), and the brothers Drusus and Tiberius (afterwards Emperor), stepsons of Augustus. 41. alma adorea = with kindly (refreshing) success. 43. ceu flamma per taedas = like fire through a pine-forest. —W. 44. equitavit = galloped, careered, used of Hannibal, and, by zeugma, with flamma and Eurus. 46-47. impio tumultu = by the sacrilegious invasion (or riot, outrage), possibly with reference to Livy's story (xxvi. 11) of the plundering of the Temple of Feronia. 48. rectos = upright, i.e. of the images supposed to have been thrown down by Hannibal, and not set on their pedestals again.]

Results of the Battle. 'The war in Italy was to all appearances finished, and it was on the Metaurus that the Romans conquered Spain.' —Ihne. When Hannibal recognised the head of his brother Hasdrubal, he foresaw the doom of Carthage:—

'Lost, lost is all: A nation's hope, a nation's name, They died with dying Hasdrubal.' —C. (Hor. Od. IV. iv. 70-73).

C37

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Hannibal leaves Italy, 203 B.C.

Nihil certe ultra rei in Italia ab Hannibale gestum. Nam ad eum quoque legati ab Carthagine vocantes in Africam eis forte diebus, quibus ad Magonem, venerunt. Frendens gemensque ac vix lacrimis temperans dicitur legatorum verba audisse. {5} Postquam edita sunt mandata, 'Iam non perplexe,' inquit, 'sed palam revocant, qui vetando supplementum et pecuniam mitti iam pridem trahebant. Vicit ergo Hannibalem non populus Romanus totiens caesus fugatusque, sed senatus Carthaginiensis {10} obtrectatione atque invidia; neque hac deformitate reditus mei tam P. Scipio exsultabit atque efferet sese quam Hanno, qui domum nostram, quando alia re non potuit, ruina Carthaginis oppressit.' Iam hoc ipsum praesagiens animo praeparaverat {15} ante naves. Itaque inutili militum turba praesidii specie in oppida Bruttii agri, quae pauca magis metu quam fide continebantur, dimissa, quod roboris in exercitu erat in Africam transvexit. Raro quemquam alium, patriam exilii causa relinquentem, {20} tam maestum abisse ferunt quam Hannibalem, hostium terra excedentem.

LIVY, xxx. 19, 20.

Context. Scipio (204 B.C.) landed in Africa and won such decisive victories over the Carthaginians under Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco, that ii was necessary in 203 B.C. to recall both Mago and Hannibal.

[Linenotes: 3-4. ad Magonem. Mago, H.'s youngest brother, had in 205 B.C. been despatched from Carthage with considerable reinforcements for H. He took Genoa, again roused the Gauls against Rome, and in 203 B.C. fought an indecisive action with the Romans. Mago was severely wounded, and died at sea before he reached Africa. 6. Iam non perplexe = now in no veiled manner (lit. not obscurely). 8. iam pridem trahebant = began long ago to try to pull me back. —Rawlins. 11. obtrectatione = by disparagement. 13. Hanno, the leader of the aristocratic (peace) party at Carthage, and the persistent opponent of Hamilcar Barca and his sons.]

Hannibal's Speech. ll. 6-15. This is purely imaginary and illustrates the bitter hatred of the Romans for H. They alleged that H. was personally responsible for the war, and that he undertook it for selfish and party ends. Also that Carthage, unable to prevent the war, withheld supplies and reinforcements. Ihne says 'The whole course of the war is a sufficient refutation of these charges.'

C38

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Zama, 202 B.C. (1) Before the Battle.

Ita infecta pace ex colloquio ad suos cum se recepissent, frustra verba praelata renuntiant: armis decernendum esse habendamque eam fortunam, quam dei dedissent. In castra ut est ventum, pronuntiant ambo, arma expedirent milites animosque ad {5} supremum certamen, non in unum diem sed in perpetuum, si felicitas adesset, victores. Roma an Carthago iura gentibus daret, ante crastinam noctem scituros; neque enim Africam aut Italiam, sed orbem terrarum victoriae praemium fore; par {10} periculum praemio, quibus adversa pugnae fortuna fuisset. Nam neque Romanis effugium ullum patebat in aliena ignotaque terra et Carthagini supremo auxilio effuso adesse videbatur praesens excidium. Ad hoc discrimen procedunt postero die duorum {15} opulentissimorum populorum duo longe clarissimi duces, duo fortissimi exercitus, multa ante parta decora aut cumulaturi eo die aut eversuri. Anceps igitur spes et metus miscebant animos; contemplantibus modo suam modo hostium aciem, cum non oculis {20} magis quam ratione pensarent vires, simul laeta simul tristia obversabantur.

LIVY, xxx. 31, 32.

[Linenotes: 1-2. Ita infecta pace ... renuntiant, referring to Livy's picturesque account of the personal interview between Scipio and Hannibal, and the fruitless negotiations for peace. 7-10. Roma an Carthago ... praemium fore. 'By the victory of Zama it was decided that the states of the ancient world should be welded into one great empire, and that this empire should be founded by Rome and not by Carthage.' —Ihne. 14. effuso = dispersed, i.e. defeated. 15. discrimen = decisive point, decision. 18. aut cumulaturi aut eversuri = either to augment (lit. heap up) or overthrow. 21. pensarent vires = they estimated (weighed) their strength.]

The Battle of Zama. 'Here, too, the elephants proved disastrous to their own side. Some ran down the spaces between the Roman maniples (see C 39, B. note), and were of no further use; while others, driven aside by the Roman skirmishers, threw H.'s Carthaginian cavalry into such disorder that they were unable to resist the attack of Scipio's horse. The first Roman line threw H.'s mercenaries back upon their reserves of the second line, and in the confusion that ensued Scipio advanced with his second and third lines. The combat raged long and fiercely until Scipio's Roman and Numidian cavalry, returning from their pursuit of H.'s horse, fell upon the enemy's rear and decided the battle.' —Ihne.

C39

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

Zama, 202 B.C. (2) The Order of Battle.

A. Hannibal adversus Scipionem, post elephantos lxxx, qui in prima fronte positi hostium turbarent aciem, auxiliares Gallos et Ligures et Baliares Maurosque posuit, ut neque fugere possent Poenis a tergo stantibus et hostem oppositi, si non infestarent, {5} at certe fatigarent: tum suis et Macedonibus, qui iam fessos Romanos integri exciperent, in secunda acie collocatis, novissimos Italicos constituit, quorum et timebat fidem et segnitiam verebatur, quoniam plerosque eorum ab Italia invitos extraxerat. {10}

Hannibal's Army. It consisted broadly of five classes:

1. His veteran army of Italy, on which he could thoroughly rely, partly Carthaginian, partly Italian (mostly Bruttians).

These he placed in his third line.

2. A newly raised force of Carthaginian and Libyan militia.

These he placed in his second line.

3. Mercenaries, consisting of Moors, Gauls, Ligurians, the Balearic contingent, and the Spaniards.

These he placed in his first line.

4. Carthaginian and Numidian cavalry.

These he placed on his wings.

5. 80 elephants. These he placed on his front, to open the attack.

B. Scipio adversus hanc formam robur legionis triplici acie in fronte ordinatum per hastatos et principes et triarios opposuit: nec continuas construxit cohortes, sed manipulis inter se distantibus spatium dedit, per quod elephanti ab hostibus acti {15} facile transmitti sine perturbatione ordinum possent. Ea ipsa intervalla expeditis velitibus implevit, ne interluceret acies, dato his praecepto, ut ad impetum elephantorum vel retro vel in latera concederent. Equitatum deinde in cornua divisit et dextro Romanis {20} equitibus Laelium, sinistro Numidis Masinissam praeposuit: quae tam prudens ordinatio non dubie causa victoriae fuit.

FRONTINUS, Strategemata, ii. 3.16.

Scipio's order of battle. Instead of drawing up his manipuli like the black squares of a chessboard—the usual order, so that, in advancing, the manipuli of the three lines could form one unbroken line—he placed them one behind the other, like the rounds of a ladder, so as to leave spaces in the lines, through which the elephants might pass without trampling down or throwing into confusion the infantry battalions, e.g.:

not but * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

FORMATION OF EMPIRE BEYOND ITALY.

C40

SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR, 200-196 B.C. (1)

Battle of Cynoscephalae, 197 B.C.

Non dubia res fuit; extemplo terga vertere Macedones, terrore primo bestiarum aversi. Et ceteri quidem hos pulsos sequebantur; unus e tribunis militum, ex tempore capto consilio, cum viginti signorum militibus, relicta ea parte suorum, quae {5} haud dubie vincebat, brevi circuitu dextrum cornu hostium aversum invadit. Nullam aciem ab tergo adortus non turbasset; ceterum ad communem omnium in tali re trepidationem accessit, quod phalanx Macedonum, gravis atque immobilis, nec {10} circumagere se poterat, nec hoc, qui a fronte, paulo ante pedem referentes, tunc ultro territis instabant, patiebantur. Ad hoc loco etiam premebantur, quia iugum, ex quo pugnaverant, dum per proclive pulsos insequuntur, tradiderant hosti ad terga sua circumducto. {15} Paulisper in medio caesi, deinde omissis plerique armis capessunt fugam. Philippus cum paucis peditum equitumque primo tumulum altiorem inter ceteros cepit, ut specularetur, quae in laeva parte suorum fortuna esset; deinde, postquam fugam {20} effusam animadvertit et omnia circa iuga signis atque armis fulgere, tum et ipse acie excessit.

LIVY, xxxiii. 9, 10.

Context. Philip V, King of Macedon, had made a treaty with Hannibal in 215 B.C., and provoked the first Macedonian War (214-205 B.C.) by an attack on Apollonia in Illyria, and the capture of the port of Oricum in Epirus. The Romans now resolved to make Philip suffer for the trouble he had caused them by interfering in the war with Hannibal. Acasus belli was soon found in the Athenian Embassy to Rome (201 B.C.) asking for help against Philip.

[Linenotes: 3-4. unus ... militum. Ihne says 'He seized the favourable opportunity to shape the battle which had begun without plan into a brilliant victory for Rome.' 5. signorum (= manipulorum) = companies, i.e. with some 3500 men. 13. loco premebantur = they (i.e. the phalanx) began to feel the disadvantage of position. —Rawlins. 16. in medio caesi = cut down from both sides. —R.]

Cynoscephalae (Dog's Heads), a low chain of hills between Pherae and Scotussa in Thessaly.

Results of the Battle. 'The Romans lost only 700 men. That was the price paid for a victory which laid the Monarchy of Alexander the Great in the dust.' —Ihne.

Terms of Peace, 196 B.C. Macedonia to remain an independent state, but, like Carthage, to lose all her foreign possessions, and to be sunk to the level of a vassal state.

C41

SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR, 200-196 B.C. (2)

Flamininus proclaims the Freedom of Greece, 196 B.C.

Isthmiorum statum ludicrum aderat, semper quidem et alias frequens cum propter spectaculi studium insitum genti, quo certamina omnis generis artium viriumque et pernicitatis visuntur, tum quia propter opportunitatem loci, per duo diversa maria {5} omnium rerum usus ministrantis humano generi, concilium Asiae Graeciaeque is mercatus erat; tum vero non ad solitos modo usus undique convenerant, sed exspectatione erecti, qui deinde status futurus Graeciae, quae sua fortuna esset. Ad spectaculum {10} consederant, et praeco cum tubicine, ut mos est, in mediam aream, unde sollemni carmine ludicrum indici solet, processit et, tuba silentio facto, ita pronuntiat: 'Senatus Romanus et T. Quinctius imperator, Philippo rege Macedonibusque devictis, {15} liberos, immunes, suis legibus esse iubet Corinthios, Phocenses, Locrensesque omnes et insulam Euboeam et Magnetas, Thessalos, Perrhaebos, Achaeos Phthiotas.' ... Esse aliquam in terris gentem, quae sua impensa, suo labore ac periculo bella gerat pro {20} libertate aliorum. Una voce praeconis liberatas omnes Graeciae atque Asiae urbes; hoc spe concipere audacis animi fuisse, ad effectum adducere et virtutis et fortunae ingentis.

LIVY, xxxiii. 32, 33 (sel.)

[Linenotes: 1. Isthmiorum statum ludicrum = time fixed (statum) for the Isthmian Games (celebrated at Corinth every two years). 3-4. quo certamina ... visuntur = which makes them go to see contests of every kind of artistic performance (artium) and of feats of strength and agility. —Rawlins. 7. concilium is mercatus erat ... = that gathering was the general rendezvous (mercatus) of ... mercatus = i. trade, or mart; ii. afestival assemblage (panguris). 11. in mediam aream = into the centre of the open space (of the stadium). 17. Locrensesque omnes, i.e. E. & W. Locris. 18. Perrhaebos, N. of Thessaly. Achaeos Phthiotas = the Achaeans who inhabited Phthiotis (S.E. of Thessaly). 19-24. Esse aliquam ... ingentis: in these words the Greeks express their astonishment and gratitude at the greatness of the boon conferred upon them.]

The Freedom of Greece. 'The Greeks believed with a childlike simplicity that the Romans really cared for their freedom, and that they had crossed the sea with no other object than to deliver Greece from a foreign yoke.... Flamininus was a skilful diplomatist, and particularly qualified to sift and settle the affairs of Greece; for he understood the Greek character, and was not inaccessible, like so many other Romans, to Greek views and opinions.' —Ihne.

C42

WAR WITH ANTIOCHUS OF SYRIA, 191-190 B.C.

A. Battle of Thermopylae, 191 B.C. Victory due to Cato.

Acilius Glabrio consul adversus Antiochi regis aciem, quam is in Achaia pro angustiis Thermopylarum direxerat, iniquitatibus loci non irritus tantum, sed cum iactura qnoque repulsus esset, nisi circummissus ab eo Porcius Cato, qui tum, iam {5} consularis, tribunus militum a populo factus in exercitu erat, deiectis iugis Callidromi mentis Aetolis, qui praesidio ea tenebant, super imminentem castris regiis collem a tergo subitus apparuisset: quo facto perturbatis Antiochi copiis utrimque irrupere Romani {10} et fusis fugatisque castra ceperunt.

FRONTINUS, Strategemata, ii. 4.4.

Context. In 192 B.C. Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, accepted the invitation of the Aetolians, who, since the Peace of 196 B.C., had been snubbed by the Romans, to come to liberate Greece from the tyranny of Rome.

B. Battle of Magnesia, 190 B.C.

Tum consule Scipione, cui frater, ille modo victor Carthaginis Africanus, aderat voluntaria legatione, debellari regem placet. Et iam toto cesserat mari, sed nos imus ulterius. Maeandrum {15} ad amnem montemque Sipylum castra ponuntur. Hic rex, incredibile dictu quibus auxiliis, quibus copiis, consederat. Trecenta milia peditum, equitum falcatorumque curruum non minor numerus. Elephantis ad hoc immensae magnitudinis, auro purpura {20} argento et suo ebore fulgentibus aciem utrimque vallaverat. Sed haec omnia praepedita magnitudine sua, ad hoc imbre, qui subito superfusus mira felicitate Persicos arcus corruperat. Primum trepidatio, mox fuga, deinde triumphus fuerunt. {25}

FLORUS, i. 24. 14-18.

Context. In 190 B.C. Lucius Scipio was appointed to carry the war into Asia. Scipio Africanus, who accompanied his brother as Chief of Staff, fell ill at Elaea, the port of Pergamum. His place was taken by Cn. Domitius, an experienced officer.

[Linenotes: 14-15. Et iam toto cesserat mari, as the result of the decisive defeat, in 190 B.C., of the Syrian fleet off Myonnesus. 15-16. Maeandrum ... ponuntur. The battle was fought near Magnesia (N.W. of Lydia) at the foot of Mt. Sipylus.]

Parallel Passage. Livy, xxxvii. 39-44, 'The Battle of Magnesia decided the fate of the Syrian Empire, as the battles of Zama and Cynoscephalae had decided the fate of Carthage and Macedonia.' —Ihne.

C43

Deaths of Three Great Men, 183 B.C.

Hannibal, postquam est nuntiatum milites regios in vestibulo esse, postico fugere conatus, ut id quoque occursu militum obsaeptum sensit et omnia circa clausa custodiis dispositis esse, venenum, quod multo ante praeparatum ad tales habebat casus, {5} poposcit. 'Liberemus,' inquit, 'diuturna cura populum Romanum, quando mortem senis exspectare longum censent. Nec magnam nec memorabilem ex inermi proditoque Flamininus victoriam feret.' Exsecratus deinde in caput regnumque {10} Prusiae, et hospitales deos violatae ab eo fidei testes invocans, poculum exhausit.... Trium clarissimorum suae cuiusque gentis virorum non tempore magis congruente comparabilis mors videtur esse, quam quod nemo eorum satis dignum splendore {15} vitae exitum habuit. Nam primum omnes non in patrio solo mortui nec sepulti sunt. Veneno absumpti Hannibal et Philopoemen; exsul Hannibal, proditus ab hospite, captus Philopoemen in carcere et in vinculis exspiravit. Scipio etsi non exsul neque {20} damnatus, die tamen dicta, ad quam non adfuerat reus, absens citatus, voluntarium non sibimet ipse solum sed etiam funeri suo exsilium indixit.

LIVY, xxxix, 51, 52 (sel.)

Context. After Zama Hannibal held the highest office (Suffete = L. praetura) at Carthage, and effected useful democratic reforms. However, his political enemies denounced him to Rome as making plans for a new war, and in 195 B.C. he was forced to flee from Carthage and took refuge with Antiochus. After Magnesia, H. found for seven years a safe asylum with Prusias, king of Bithynia; but the Romans could not be at ease so long as H. lived, and Flamininus the Liberator of Greece undertook the inglorious quest of demanding the surrender of Hannibal.

[Linenotes: 13-15. non tempore magis congruente quam = not so much in coincidence of (congruente, lit. agreeing with) date as. —R. 18. Philopoemen, the heroic chief of the Achaean League, was taken prisoner by Dinocrates, imprisoned in a dungeon at Messene (in carcere, l. 19), and compelled to drink poison. 20-23. Scipio was accused, at the instigation of Cato, by the tribune Naevius (185 B.C.) of having been bribed by Antiochus to procure for him favourable conditions of peace. Too proud to defend himself against such a charge, Scipio retired to his country-seat at Liternum, where by a voluntary act he consigned both himself and his grave to exile (voluntarium ... indixit). 'Ingrata patria, ne ossa quidem mea habes.' Epitaph of Scipio, written by himself.]

C44

M. Porcius Cato, 234-149 B.C.(1)

At Cato, censor cum L. Valerio Flacco, severe praefuit ei potestati. Nam et in complures nobiles animadvertit et multas res novas in edictum addidit, qua re luxuria reprimeretur, quae iam tum incipiebat pullulare. Circiter annos octoginta, usque ad extremam {5} aetatem ab adolescentia, rei publicae causa suscipere inimicitias non destitit. Amultis tentatus non modo nullum detrimentum existimationis fecit, sed, quoad vixit, virtutum laude crevit.

In omnibus rebus singulari fuit industria: nam {10} et agricola sollers et peritus iuris consultus et magnus imperator et probabilis orator et cupidissimus litterarum fuit. Quarum studium etsi senior arripuerat, tamen tantum progressum fecit, ut non facile reperiri posset neque de Graecis neque de {15} Italicis rebus, quod ei fuerit incognitum. Ab adulescentia confecit orationes. Senex historias scribere instituit. Earum sunt libri vii. Primus continet res gestas regum populi Romani, secundus et tertius unde quaeque civitas orta sit Italica, ob quam rem omnes {20} Origines videtur appellasse.

NEPOS, Cato, ii., iii.

[Linenotes: 1. Censor, 184 B.C., with L. Valerius Flaccus, his great friend and patron, by whom he was introduced to political life. 3. in edictum. The Censors, on their entrance upon office, issued a proclamation or edict, setting forth the principles upon which they intended to act. Cato set forth in his edict that he intended to use his power for the suppression of luxury. 5. pullulare = to spread, increase; lit. to put forth, of plants and animals. Cf. pull-us (our pullet), pu-er, plos (= afoal).] octoginta. This is an exaggeration. He was only eighty-five when he died 149 B.C. 6-7. rei publicae ... non destitit. Seneca says: Scipio cum hostibus nostris bellum, Cato cum moribus gessit. 7-9. Cato was accused no less than 44 times, but each time acquitted. 11. iuris consultus = lawyer. 12. magnus imperator, e.g. in the 2nd Punic War, and the decisive victory at Thermopylae (191 B.C.) was mainly due to Cato. probabilis orator = a tolerable, acceptable orator. Oscar Browning. 17-21. His two great works were his treatise De Re Rustica (or De Agri Cultura), the earliest extant work in Latin prose, and his Origines, or accounts of the rise and growth of the Italian nation, the earliest history in Latin prose. 'It was Cato's great merit that he asserted the rights of his native language for literary prose composition.' —Ihne.]

Cato the Censor. 'He deserves our highest respect for the defiant and manly spirit that animated him in his untiring contest with the vices of the age.' —Ihne.

C45

M. Porcius Cato. (2)

Iam pauca aratro iugera regiae Moles relinquent, undique latius Extenta visentur Lucrino Stagna lacu platanusque caelebs 4 Evincet ulmos: tum violaria et Myrtus et omnis copia narium Spargent olivetis odorem Fertilibus domino priori; 8 Tum spissa ramis laurea fervidos Excludet ictus. Non ita Romuli Praescriptum et intonsi Catonis Auspiciis veterumque norma. 12 Privatus illis census erat brevis, Commune magnum: nulla decempedis Metata privatis opacam Porticus excipiebat Arcton. 16 Nec fortuitum spernere caespitem Leges sinebant, oppida publico Sumptu iubentes et deorum Templa novo decorare saxo. 20

HORACE, Odes, II. xv.

Argument. 'Our palaces and fish-ponds and ornamental gardens are supplanting the cultivation of corn and vines and olives. This is not the spirit of Romulus or of Cato. Their rule was private thrift, public magnificence; private houses of turf, public buildings and temples of hewn stone.' —W.