This chapter named many other places as priorates, which, although under administration, were only visited, and had been waiting until there should be religious [to place in charge of them]; as religious were obtained from time to time, the convents were being supplied—not only with those coming from Espana, but with those professing in Manila. For in this manner the natives could be ministered to more readily, and the religious would fulfil their duties better; and their responsibility was very heavy.

Religious were established in Pangasinan. 1 have referred to this before, and mentioned that this province is in possession of the most religious fathers of our father St. Dominic (who keep it in a very flourishing condition), by reason of the cession of it that we made. Finally it has many excellent convents, built by those who administer them so carefully.

Religious were established in the island of Bantayan, located between the island of Panay and that of Sugbu, but farther from that of Panay. However, if one wishes to go to the island of Sugbu without sailing in the open sea, he may coast from islet to islet, although the distance across is not greater than one or one and one-half leguas. These Bantayan islets are numerous, and are all low and very small. The largest is the above-named one. When Ours acquired it, it had many inhabitants, all of very pleasing appearance, and tall and well-built. But now it is almost depopulated by the ceaseless invasions from Mindanao and Jolog. [110] We abandoned this convent (which had a thousand Indians) years ago, in order not to be changing from place to place. This island is the mother of fish, [111] and those that are caught in their season at these islets are innumerable. They are taken in boats among the islands. After we abandoned it, the island was given over to beneficed seculars. Although they have done their duty as zealous men, they have been unable to do more, because of being exposed to great risks. The above-named enemies have made great slaughter in these islands, and have taken even a greater number of captives. For these people have no abiding-place; and, however quickly the news arrives at Sugbu, when help comes the enemy has already left. For, although the distance across is not more than three or four leguas, and even two in parts, the help, as it must travel by sea, must go far—namely, twenty-five leguas. Lately, in the year 1628, men from Jolog did very great damage in that island. Admiral Don Cristobal de Lugo was governing at Sugbu as lieutenant-governor. He could have sent men, since he had news of the enemy in time. The chanter Juan Muniscripo, beneficed clergyman of the island, and another secular (who had been expelled from the Society), by name Alonso de Campos, and six Spaniards—who, it is known, fulfilled their duty—were in the island. But finally, as they lacked all necessary ammunition, they had to retire and take to hiding, and seek new locations. By God's mercy they were not captured, but the people of the island who were captured and killed numbered more than one hundred and fifty. The attempt has been made to withdraw the Indians thence, and settle them on the mainland of Sugbu, which is more suitable in every respect; but the attempt has failed, for the Indians would rather die there than to have a thousand comforts elsewhere. These islands contain many cocoa-palms, but no water or rice. The water comes from wells, and is very bad. The incumbent of the benefice has now built a small fort; but I believe in my soul that, when the Indian catches sight of the enemy, he will abandon it instantly.

This island has a village called Hilingigay, which it is said was the source of all the Bisayan Indians who have peopled these shores, and whose language resembles that of Hilingigay. The Indians remember quite well when they were under our tutelage and teaching, and desire to return to it. For they assert that since we have left them they have not passed one good day. They talk in this vein because always the past was better. That benefice has now about four hundred Indians. They pay tribute to the king, and belong to the bishopric of Sugbu, being of its jurisdiction in secular matters as well. It is more than seventy leguas from Manila to Bantayan to the south.

The father provincial established religious in Jaro, on the coast of the island of Sugbu, a place at present called Carcar. It has in charge more than one thousand two hundred Indians. It has been visited at times from San Nicolas, and at others from the house of Nombre de Jesus of the Spaniards. But it seemed best at this time for it to have a prior with assistants, because of the conveniences which were found there, which are not few—and much more [are they to be considered] in the case of the ministry. It is about six leguas from the city of Nombre de Jesus, and more than twenty from the end of the district. The distance can be made in four hours, with the brisa.

The provincial established religious in Hantic [112] on the opposite coast of Panay. It was an excellent village. The holy martyr Melo [113] was prior of it. Now it is fallen back because we left it; and we have taken it once more. It has about three hundred Indians, and is a visita of Guimbal, which is one legua from Tigbauan, and more than fifty from Manila.

Resident religious were established in Aclan, on the island of Panay, on the coast that looks toward Manila, which is more than fifty leguas away. This is the best convent of the island. The provincial thought best to change it for another which is inland from the river of Panay, called Barbaran, a village of people possessed by the devil. The exchange was effected, and it happened that the secular who was there, died as soon as he reached Aclan, and that the first religious established in Barbaran also died very soon, the one being but little behind the other. I have never believed in this changing of districts, for since all are of Indians, the betterment is slight, while the damage suffered by the ministry, which is the chief thing, is vast. I omit to mention other and no less damages that exist, which are not for this place, as they do not concern us.

The father provincial established religious in Batangas, which is more than twenty leguas' distance from Manila. It has a stone church and house, although these are much dilapidated from the weather. It was a great district, but now it is much less because of the men drafted for Manila. It has about six hundred Indians as tributarios. Two religious live there generally. Service is performed in the Tagal tongue. We have mentioned this convent in our description of the lake of Bongbong or Taal, which is the nearest convent to Batangas, from which it is even distant only one day's journey; the road passes through certain most excellent meadows, resembling those of Espana; where one may rear an immense number of cattle. The Indians through all this district, which they call the Comintan, make use of domestic cattle on which they travel and carry their loads. The language used there is much like the Bisayan, for one can cross from this town of Batangas, which is located on a very beautiful bay, to the Bisayas with great ease during the brisas. This district belongs to the archbishopric of Manila.

Moreover, the provincial established a convent in Malolos. This place lies two leguas by land from Bulacan, and there is an excellent highway. From Manila it lies little less than one day's journey. This village has greatly decreased; it has about three hundred Indians. It is a priorate and has a vote, but has only one religious. It has a wooden house, and has never had one of stone. [114]

The father provincial established religious in Agonoy, where Tagal is spoken. It is on the way to Pampanga, on a branch of that river called Candaba. It is a very large priorate, for it has more than one thousand rich and influential Indians. Three religious live there. It is quite near to Macabebe and Calumpit, for one can ascend to either place by the river in two hours. This town is not farther from Manila than one day's journey. A quantity of wine is made there from a tree that grows in its marshes, called palm or nipa. The house is wooden and very poor. [115]

Moreover, the father provincial established religious in Mexico, a town of Pampanga. It receives its name from its great abundance of water. A great quantity of rice is produced there, and it has a fine plain. The house and church are of stone. It has about three hundred tributes. [116]. It is a priorate and has a vote, and one or two religious generally live there. This town is quite exposed to the inroads of the Negrillos and Zambales, and there are continual misfortunes of murders, and it is quite common to find headless bodies in the field. It belongs to the archbishopric of Manila, and lies more than one day's journey from the city, either by sea or creek.



Chapter XXV

Of the great oppositions suffered by the province in that time

[However, in these early days, even, peace and quiet are not for the religious; and they find their work hindered and even opposed by encomenderos and other Spaniards who work much evil against them, and turn the natives against them. Our author mentions certain cases, for the entire truth of which he vouches, which show the manner in which some Spaniards act.]

It happened while I was prior of Passi in the Bisayas, an encomienda belonging to his Majesty, that some Indians had been drafted from that district to man a fleet which was being built. Some of the poor wretches, on the return from the expedition, desirous of returning to their homes—seeing that after so long an absence they were detained for other private works, now by this Spaniard and now by that one, who seized them—fled. For the Indian acts without counsel, as he lacks understanding. Very often, after having worked one month, and when, within one or two days, they would be exchanged, they run away—thus giving occasion to seek and punish them, and losing their wages, and abandoning the axes with which they were working. It appeared to a gentleman who was chief commander and lieutenant-governor in Ylong-ylong, a port of Panay, an infringement of his rights that the Indians should flee. Therefore, he sent two soldiers to look for them, at the cost of the poor wretches. They came to the place where I was, and told me why they came. I replied to them that they could look for them immediately. They seized the governor, [117] and wandered for three days amid the hills and valleys, stupidly, as if the Indians would appear; for not only those Indians, but the peaceful ones had abandoned their houses, and fled to the mountains. They returned, worn out after three days, without a single Indian. The Spaniard who acted as leader put the wretched governor, holding in his hands his Majesty's rod of justice, in the stocks; and there he beat him at his pleasure, now with a club, and now with his dagger. Thereupon the Indian began to cry out so loudly that I heard his cries in the convent. As 1 was about to go down, his relatives with tears informed me of what was being done. I went alone to the government house, for my companion was on a visit, this being the eve of the feast of the Holy Spirit in 1623. I began to ascend and to reprimand the soldier and to tell him that he had no authority to put that governor in the stocks, nor to maltreat him. Then the soldier pointed his sword at my breast, and gave me a very impudent message from the commandant. Among other things, he told me that he would send for me and bind me with double shackles. I laughed, brushed aside the sword, went to the stocks, and took my Indian, all covered with his own blood, and so ill-used that even yet he knows no well day, but is constantly ailing and dispirited, and in a bed. Next morning, they took the governor away, saying that the commandant would condemn him to the galleys, as if he were the cause of the Indians fleeing. Fearful of the case, I went down the river, and talked with the commandant. After talking with him, he returned the Indian to me. Since then 1 have received innumerable favors from him there, which I shall not name, as they are not of interest. Nevertheless, the Indian spent more than six taels of gold, or more than forty granos, in the journey. Let this true account and fact be considered, and who serves his Majesty, who protects the Indians, to what we religious are exposed, and what we endure in the fulfilment of our duties, and in the preservation of the country—which the Spaniards themselves are inciting to hostilities by such oppressions. The soldier was not commended, but neither did the commandant punish him. Within a short time he died, without his hopes being obtained, and as they are wont to die here. May God in His goodness have pity on his soul.

While I was prior in Santisimo Nombre de Jesus (the chief house of the province in the olden days), and while the chief commandant and lieutenant-governor was another gentleman whom I shall not name because of his influence, the latter struck a religious, whom I had there as the head preacher, between the eyes. In order to take away all opportunities for trouble, and that the commandant with his influence might cause none to the order—for whatever such an official wishes to do here, he does—I allowed the religious to go to the convent of Carcar. It was necessary for this religious to go to San Nicolas, on that saint's day, to preach, and he did so. As soon as he arrived, clad in his black habit, in all the propriety of an Augustinian religious, he went to the house of the foremost man of the city, both in position and wealth, and his wife, who were regarded most highly by the people, one of whose children had been baptized by the religious. He requested this man to give him the little loaves that the latter had been asked to make. The commandant heard of his arrival, and immediately sent two soldiers and an adjutant to seize him, and drag him with them, although he had retired. The commandant had prepared a champan and shackles to send the religious to Manila. I was advised of his arrest. I set out and went to tell Bishop Don Fray Pedro de Arce, who was at that time in his house, of the matter. He went out in his chair, followed him to the city and we found the religious surrounded by soldiers, who immediately opened the door and went away. We went to the convent, where the bishop began to write. Two seculars, who defended this action, and by whose authority the commandant did this, prevented the commandant from being excommunicated. Finally, in a meeting of the orders, the commandant was declared excommunicated. But the governor of Filipinas, Don Juan Nino de Tabora, who should have punished the commandant, neglected to do so. In this he did not imitate Don Juan de Silva, who, when a similar case happened, summoned the alcalde-mayor who was in llocos, took from him his office, and deprived him of all rights, although he was pardoned by having had the express order of the bishop of that province. But what men neglect to punish the Lord does not forget to punish. He ordered a change of fortune after certain days, so that the same governor, Don Juan Nino de Tabora, did not like this gentleman. Accordingly, following the dictates of his conscience, he made the latter leave Manila, under pretext of going to pacify an encomienda that he had given him. Finally, things became so linked together, that the above-mentioned man took refuge in our convent, for he had not found a kindly reception in any other. There dispossessed of his encomienda, which had been taken from him, he suffered for one year, what that same gentleman knows; until that, with the arrival at these islands of the inspector Don Francisco de Rojas, he left the cloister—saying that he had not sinned against king, governor, or state; but that, if he suffered, it was for his misconduct toward our order in Sugbu. I might write thousands of things concerning these events, where, as in the above, one might see the gain made by the religious, and at what cost to them, as said Christ: Eritis odio omnibus propter nomen meum. [118] Consequently, I cannot quite understand how the Spaniards should desire us in these ministries, so that, by our attending to our obligations, they could take pleasure therein. This people whom we have in charge are rustic, uncivilized, lawless, and have no more system of action than the will of their chiefs. Now, then, how can these people become Christians, unless they are gathered together, and restrained; and if the religious, as fathers and masters, do not punish them? And if a father has the well-known jurisdiction over his son—and this jurisdiction is extended much more in the case of a master—why do we not have something for these two titles? For if the Indians have no fear or respect for the religious, of what advantage is our stay here? And how can we compel those already christianized to fulfil their duties, if the Indian feels that the father can not punish him? For they detest, as a rule, church matters—to such an extent, that they would even pay two tributes to be free from the church. They love their old beliefs and revelries so strongly that they would lose their souls for them. Without any fear, how would they attend to their duties? The extensive kingdom of China is more densely populated than any other that is known, and there is the greatest poverty among the common people, who are given to theft, murder, and innumerable other sins. Yet it is the most peaceful kingdom known and has no gallows or execution, but [they are restrained] by means only of their fear of the bamboo with which they are beaten. Now if the Indian lack this fear, who can bring him to reason? The Indians are daily growing worse, for they are losing fear. Daily utterances are made against the religious that they cannot punish them, and should not do it. This reacts against the Spaniards themselves, for, once aroused, the Indians will rebel when least expected; and they know already how to wield a sword and use an arquebus.

It is quite true that the religious do not mix in things of importance belonging to other tribunals, and the fathers provincial are careful to advise them on this matter; but the opposition to them in their ministry is the cause of the devil and his work. Some persons, under the pretext of piety, try to destroy the religious, saying that the Indians are free, and protected in their liberty, and that their liberty must not be taken away, but that they may wander as they will. For the aim of the fathers is to have the Indians live in villages. All this means harm to the Indian, for he is naturally lazy and a friend of sloth. If he is allowed, he wanders about aimlessly like a vagabond without working; and, at tribute-paying time, he has not the wherewithal to pay. He begs a loan of the tribute, and thus he becomes a slave. This would not happen, were he forced to perform the work from which he flees. Thus in not allowing him to become a vagabond, his own good is sought. We know well that there are constables in Espana who arrest and search out the idle. Is that contrary to the liberty in which we are born? Certainly not, for idleness is the mother of all the vices, as St. Gregory insinuates, when he names it as the chief cause of the destruction of Sodom: fuit iniquitas sororis tutu superbia, abundantia et otium. [119] Then, how can what is not opposed to liberty in Espana be opposed to liberty here in a country which rears so remarkable natives? Therefore for his own good much care must be taken of the Indian. What the Indian should be, he would become with the knowledge of the priors, so that they may make him settle down, and perform the work that is to make him a Christian, support him, pay his tribute, and make him a man of reason and judgment. [120]

Besides this war waged on us by the secular element, that which was most feared and dangerous, and caused the religious most anxiety, was the spiritual war. This arose from the zeal of the bishop of Manila, Don Domingo de Salazar, the first bishop of this city a man of vast knowledge on all subjects, and who was not ignorant of the privileges of the mendicant orders in the administration of the natives. He was bishop in Manila, and thought that he ought not to allow the religious so much freedom in the office that they were administering. He tried to restrict them in many ways, and refused to concede much. The religious, however, did not do less than to answer by pointing to the bulls of the supreme pontiffs (called forth many times at the instance of the Catholic sovereigns of Espana), and other motus proprios—all made for the furtherance of good administration, and that the faith might be propagated throughout the new kingdoms of their domains. The bishop denied to the ministers everything pertaining to jurisdiction and power; for he imagined that we could not grant dispensation in that second degree for marriages, or exercise any judicial act of those which recently—that is, ordinarily—they exercise over the newly converted. This occasioned a great contention, and even scandal; for as the country was new, and there was no other learning than that of his Lordship—which doubtless was very great, and authorized by his dignity and person—and that of our fathers, some said "yes," and others "no," some that they could, others that they could not. Thus everything was in confusion, not only among Ours, but throughout the islands.

The father provincial was like a drowning man in this matter, and was obliged to give attention to so grave a necessity as the present. As he could devise no remedy here, he resolved to go to Espana, in order to settle the whole matter. The bishop, who wished only to do the proper thing, was glad of the voyage. He wrote some letters to religious of the province of Mejico, whom he thoroughly trusted and believed in. He set his doubts before them, and the arguments on which he grounded his position, in order that the controversy might be settled amicably; and that the province of Mejico, as the mother of this province, might correct what his Lordship considered as excesses.

The father provincial left Manila and reached Nueva Espana. He left his vicar in the Filipinas, namely father Fray Francisco Manrique. He pursued his voyage, and reached Espana in safety, where he despatched his business very favorably—both in the Roman court, where Gregory XIII was governing the Church of God; and in the court of Espana, where he obtained very favorable decrees from his Majesty, Felipe II, our king and sovereign. The latter approved everything that our religious had done in the churches of those kingdoms and seigniories of his. He granted many other favors and gifts, so that they might prosecute the undertaking with greater resolution, and by the self-same methods that had been used theretofore. While these matters were being negotiated at court, the religious of this province, [121] conferring upon the articles upon which the bishop and Ours disagreed, wrote to the bishop letters of complete submission, in which they begged him to moderate his anger, and await the decision that would soon arrive from Espana with other decisions approving what had until then been done by the religious, and encouraging them to go forward in the defense of truth. The most learned Master Veracruz, as the father and protector of the ministry, and defense of the privileges held by the religious, wrote so learned a letter to the bishop, that it proved sufficient to calm him. Later, that letter served as a primer for the ministers, and a protection against the difficulties that arose. Of so much value has been the opinion of this great man, and of all his writings. [122] In conclusion, I will say that father Fray Andres de Aguirre returned from Espana, whereupon those hurricanes which had been aroused were laid. But he reached Mejico so broken from the journey that he did not dare to go immediately to the Filipinas. However he sent the promised news of what had been enacted concerning it, which was given a glad reception. Thereupon, our fathers, like men who had reached land after a great and severe storm, commenced to breathe. They gave thanks to the Lord that He had not forgotten them. Thanks were given likewise to his Majesty Felipe II; for by so many favors and privileges they were able to prosecute the works that had been undertaken, and to place their shoulders to works much greater for his service. This was not alone for the good of the Augustinian order, but for that of all the other orders; for if one order suffered shipwreck, all must do the same, as all were in the same boat, directed by the same helm in the same direction, and under the same winds.

[Father Aguirre returned to the islands in 1593, where he was received with joy. He died as was his wish, in the islands "which he loved greatly, as he was one of the founders of that province."]



Chapter XXVI

Of the chapter held in the Filipinas Islands, and as will be told later, of the first election of our father Fray Diego de Alvarez. [123]

The year 1584 came, at which time father Fray Andres de Aguirre had finished his term as provincial, as aforesaid; and the time had come to give the province, according to the orders and rulings of our regulations, a new head, who should take charge of the affairs of the province, both in spiritual and temporal matters, with new strength, and new energy and resolution. I do not deceive myself in comparing the action of the chapter to that of retiling; for they act as one who, when he perceives that his house is leaking, tries to remedy that by putting on new tiles, which oppose the rain and wind with new vigor and thoroughness, and keep the house free from leaks, which at the last would utterly ruin it. In the same manner, the superiors of the order, after the completion of their three years of service in the office, would beyond any doubt be tired and liable to yield more easily to any dispensation in the rigor of the observance, so that gradually the edifice would be undermined—as the Holy Ghost tells us, qui spernit modica, paulatim decidet. [124] Therefore in order to avoid such troubles, which are so full of peril to the order, our rules provide that new superiors be elected, who may carry out the rigor of our laws with new resolution, new zeal, and new force, and who should restore and suspend whatever time and opportunity has relaxed somewhat, taking away the opportunity for evil custom and abuses. Thus, desirous in this chapter of advance throughout the province, the capitular fathers set their eves on father Fray Diego de Alvarez, a man of learning and judgment, and of blameless life. Of such a man did the province have need, so that with the quiet that it had already negotiated at the cost of the anxiety, care, and diligence of father Fray Andres de Aguirre, the new provincial might continue what his predecessor had so happily commenced. Thus, then, the whole chapter having turned their attention to the good of the province, many things were settled in it; and the province began to spread, and new priorates were assigned from the visitas of the order (which were numerous and very widely scattered), so that by this means the Indians could be better instructed and greater care taken of them. The experience has shown us that they are a race with whom one cannot be neglectful; and if it were possible to assign one religious to each Indian, so that the latter might not lose sight of him, even this, I believe would be insufficient. For scarcely has one left them for any short space of time, when they return to their natural way of life—just like the bow which, when strung, is bent; but, when unstrung, at once straightens and regains its former position.

In this chapter religious were established in the village of Bantay, of the province of Ilocos, near the town of Fernandina, which now exists only in name. [125] It is fifty leguas from Manila. It has now an excellent wooden house and church. It belongs to the bishopric of Cagayan, and the bishop of that province usually lives there. It has two resident religious, and has more than one thousand Indians in charge. The chapter placed a religious in the village of Purao, [126] the first village in the province of Ilocos after leaving the province of Pangasinan. This village belongs to the bishopric of Cagayan, and is a district of about one thousand Indians, although it is unhealthful. Two religious live there usually. It is fifty-four leguas from Manila. One can go to the province of Ilocos either by sea or by land, although the highway is very dangerous. One always goes with an escort of armed Indians, for many Zambales wander through those mountains, whence they descend to hunt heads. When there is no resistance offered by arquebuses, of which they are in deadly fear, they obtain heads very easily.

This chapter established religious in Vigan, or the village of Fernandina, near Bantay. There lives the bishop, to whom this town has been given for his dwelling, and so that he may place there what seculars he wishes. It is the best town in Ilocos, although it has suffered its setbacks from fires, which have caused much damage. The residence of the alcalde-mayor of this province is here. This province is better than all the others, because the Ilocans lead all the other Indians in being clean and heat, and in having large settlements. However, that is due to the earlier religious, who settled them in villages, and the people have remained settled so thoroughly. Had the like been done in the other provinces, the religious would not suffer so greatly. This province has thirteen priorates in all, only four of which, or rather five, have a vote. [127] The Indians are all Christians, and are the humblest and most tractable known. The entire province lies along the coast, and has fine rivers, which descend from the mountains. When the north winds blow, the province is considered very unhealthful. It produces rice in abundance, and all the native fruits, besides some of Castilla, such as oranges, grapes, figs, etc. The houses are all built of wood, and therefore liable to many fires, so that scarcely a year passes when some convent does not burn. Now they have begun to roof the houses with stone, that is, tile. This was begun by father Fray Francisco de Mercado, [128] who has often been prior of Ilaoag—which has more than one thousand five hundred Indians—and at other times vicar-provincial of the same province. [129]

This province is considered to have a great advantage over the others; for when the Chinese arrive late, and cannot anchor or go to Manila, they enter some port or river of Ilocos. On that account this province is well supplied with necessaries, at very reasonable prices. Traders are wont to go there from Manila in order to buy, and then take their purchases to Manila with the north wind or brisa. Ships from Macau and India are accustomed also to anchor in these ports, this depending upon what time they come and all this is of advantage to this district.

A great quantity of gold has been, and is, obtained from the province; not that the province yields it, but the Igorrotes bring it down from the mountains. They are light-complexioned Indians, but more unconquerable than what we have said of Zambales and Negrillos. When peaceful they bring down gold, which they extract there from their mines; and they exchange it for cattle, which those along the coast own. They trade also for abnormally large and completely white swine—never have I seen them of such size in Espana. They also take away blankets, which the people in Ilocos make of excellent quality, from cotton, which is produced in abundance. But when the Igorrotes are hostile, the same is suffered as at Pampanga, and even more. For then those mountaineers come down to hunt heads, in which they take great pride. This is a remarkable inclination of all these Indians, for they are all bloodthirsty. Ours labored much in this province, as will be seen.

The father provincial established religious for the second time in the districts near Passi in Bisayas. We have said enough of this in its place, and I refer to that.

Likewise the fathers of the definitorio established resident fathers in Malate. This is only one short half-legua from Manila, and consists of but one street, along which are three parish churches. The first is Santiago [130] and is built of stone. It is excellent, and was ordered to be built by Don Juan de Silva, governor of these islands. All the Spaniards who live outside the city of Manila—who, I believe, number more than those who live within—attend this church. These Spaniards are all poor folk, and married to native, mestiza, or negro women. Many are sailors; and some are in the islands only temporarily, engaged in their petty trading, and because they can live more comfortably in this country, and there is less heat, as it is open and free. This suburb contains some stone houses, and some summer gardens. Farther on is Ermita, which ministers to Tagal Indians, who number about four hundred. [131] It has a stone church and the house of the beneficed priest. It belonged to us first; but some time ago it was given to the bishops of Manila, in order that they might have a house outside the city, where they might refresh and recreate themselves. [132] It is called Nuestra Senora de Guia. It has an image to which great devotion is paid. When the ships from Castilla fail to come, and are delayed, then they take out the image and carry it to the cathedral, and a novena is performed in order that the Virgin may bring these ships. Thus many times the ships have arrived at that time. At other times it has happened that, after the novena, they have no news of the vessels and they wish to return the Virgin, but the weather has been such that it was impossible; but at that time news of the vessels would arrive, which is the most joyful news for all the islands. For if the vessels fail to come, in even one year, all are left without help or shelter. [133]

Further on in the same street is this convent of ours at Malate. It has a stone church and house, sufficient for one religious, who lives there and has in charge two hundred Indians. [134] The image, "Nuestra Senora de los Remedios," has been highly reverenced. All the Indians of these towns are traders, and their chief source of wealth is in the voyages to Cavite. For there, at any time, they find a boat all ready, which takes them to Cavite in a very short time. Very rarely is any of these boats ever lost; for the Indians understand them perfectly, and are wont to venture on the sea even with the waves running sky-high.

Religious were established in Tanauan, situated in the lake of Taal. It was a very fine town, rich and densely populated, but now it is thoroughly impoverished. It has a wooden house and church, and Ours minister to about seven hundred Indians. [135] The people are Tagals. As one goes thither from Manila, he descends a truly frightful hill for more than one legua. The convent lies on the lake shore, and on the brow of the same land or slope. Tanauan lies eleven or twelve leguas from Manila, and belongs to the latter's bishopric. In it is Comintan, where many cotton hose are made. The inhabitants are healthier and more clever than the others. Champans (which are Sangley boats) enter this lake through the Taal River, by which the lake empties into the sea; for the Chinese go everywhere, and there is no islet, however devoid of profit it be, where they do not go. If they can obtain nothing else at any islet they get wood; and if that is lacking, yet they find on the coast material from which they make lime. This they take to Manila, and it is not the least expensive thing.

A convent and religious were established in Lipa, which is located on this lake, four leguas from the convent of Tanauan, of which I have just spoken. This convent has at present about four hundred Indians. It has one religious, and the place formerly was densely populated. But already I have mentioned how this lake region has retrograded. Many Indians have been taken thence to Cavite, and but very few return; for they remain in that neighborhood, fleeing from work. There are a very fine new house and church there, which are built of wood and better than those of Tanauan.

Religious were established in San Pablo in the mountains, [136] which is fourteen leguas from Manila by way of Laguna de Bay—ten to the Bay, and four to this convent. It was nothing until father Fray Hernando Cabrera [137]—of the province of Andalucia, and a son of the house at Cordova—went there, who was prior in that convent for many years. Although neither its house nor its churches of stone, yet they are of wood, and the best and finest in the province—particularly the church, with its reredoses and paintings of the saints of the order, so handsomely made that there is nothing finer in the islands. It is feared, and with good reason, that since it is built of wood, it will last but a short time, and that all that expense and beauty will be wasted. The Indians were settled as if they were Spaniards, and their village was laid out with its squares and so excellent houses that it was good only to behold it. But as soon as the father left there, all that order vanished; for all which does not tend to keep the Indians in their fields and in the mountains makes them dissatisfied. The father established so good a stock farm that the Manila convent had to go there, and obtain from it five hundred head of cattle; these were placed on the old stock farm, which no longer had any cattle. He adorned the sacristy of the said village with so much silver that no cathedral in Espana had an equal amount, for it had abundance of every kind. As soon as this religious left there, the convent of Manila took a notable ornament from it, which cost it more than eight hundred granos. With this the house at Manila is adorned during the most solemn feasts, both within and without the house. The father did many things in other places, until his death at sea, during a voyage to Espana in 1629. The province will always mourn the death of this religious, for, besides his having done most to increase it, he was the best Tagal interpreter. This, together with his exceeding great renown in secular affairs, and his not less observance in matters affecting his order, was a quality that would make him esteemed in any community. He left this province to go to take shelter in Espana. There was no provincial who would restrain him; for of these religious there are some who had to be restrained, since out of many crews not many men excel. He died at sea; and it was well understood that God did not choose to leave him here, but without doubt would take him to give him the reward of his many labors and of his devotion. This convent has more than one thousand Indians, and three religious—a very small number. Sometimes there are two religious, the number depending upon the poverty or ease of the time. A quantity of fruit grows in this place. The water is bad, and therefore the religious are looking for better. Cattle draw the fruit from here to Bay, where small Sangley and Japanese champans are found. These buy the fruit to resell it in Manila; for all the fruit and buyo used in the city of Manila comes from this Laguna, as I believe I have already mentioned. Amid these heights are many fresh-water lakes, and others of salt water, one-half legua in circuit or more. Others are less but so deep that bottom cannot be found. They are secrets of the Author of nature.



Chapter XXVII

Which treats of the chapter of this province in which father Fray Diego Munoz [138] was elected

In the year 1587, the chapter was held in Manila. It was the first one held according to the new rules received and ordered to be observed in the general chapter held at Rome in 1581, when our very reverend Tadeo Perusino, a man of great learning, notable for his sanctity, and one of great skill in the government and management of grave matters (as was declared by his Excellency Cardinal Jacobo Sabelio, on this same occasion), was elected [general of the order] for the second time. This work [i.e., the new rules] had been commenced in 1575 at another general chapter, at which this illustrious man was elected also. There all the provinces warned him of the need for rules, for they had very few or none, and that, therefore, he should ordain in this respect what he should consider most advisable; and that they should order them to be printed. They also declared that it was necessary to correct them, and make them conform with the holy canons of the Council of Trent, and with certain new determinations and rules of the most holy pontiffs, adding various other things in harmony with the times, for with time everything changes. The chapter having referred this matter to out most reverend father, his Paternity consulted all the father provincials and learned men of all the provinces, and finished the work with so great success that it was quite concluded and approved by the year 1580, by the assistance therein of his Excellency Cardinal Jacobo Sabelio, most beneficent protector of our holy order. The latter presented these rules to his Holiness Gregory XIII, so that he might amend and correct them as our supreme head and shepherd. His Holiness committed them to two most erudite cardinals, Alciato and Justiniano—the first doctor in both laws, and the second a very great theologian, who had governed the order of our father St. Dominic most worthily as its general. These illustrious men having examined and approved them, his Holiness deigned to bless them; and, as I think, that means that he approved them without adding to them greater force than they possessed, as they are the orders of our general chapters. That is the ceremony that his Holiness is wont to display with provincial councils. Hence they are authorized, but with no greater force than that given them by the Council. For if he would positively approve the rules and order them to be observed, then they would have the force of apostolic rules. The fifth part of the said rules, which treats of degrees, was not received by the Spanish provinces, who dissembled with it. The generals have heard that, and not only have they not said anything about it, but have even neglected it, so that the fifth part is now not binding.

In what pertains to the visitors, they are elected in the province, and have a vote in the provincial and intermediary chapters. But our most reverend father generals have dispensed with their making visits the third year, on account of the inconveniences that have been found to result from the visit.

Therefore, according to these new rules, the fathers assembled in the Manila convent, and cast their votes for father Fray Diego Munoz, although he had not reached the age of thirty years. That was a sufficient argument for his ability, since his so great lack of years was dispensed with, and since a province which was founded with so great devotion chose to select a man so young. But in truth, he was a person of so excellent erudition and rare virtue that that dignity was the least thing that he merited. His election was very well-received, and his person was judged to be very suitable for the office. He was a son of the house of Mejico; and that fortunate house has been one of great learning and virtue, as is proved by its numberless illustrious sons who have gone forth from it.

He came to the islands at the completion of his studies, eager for the salvation of souls, and thinking that there were many laborers for Nueva Espana and a lack of them for these islands. In the islands, he so conducted himself, during the period of his residence in them, that he was always ascending to higher planes, until he became provincial. In that office he showed himself no less devoted than previously to whatever arose for the welfare of his order, which was not little. Nor did he show a halting courage in it, as will be told in due season. He was commissary of the Holy Office in the islands, which he administered with the greatest of prudence and wisdom, and not less to the satisfaction of the inquisitors.

He, also, added to the luster of the province by founding new convents. Among them was that of Apalit, in Pampanga. Apalit is located on the river of Candaba (of which we have before spoken), very near to Macabebe. It had many Indians formerly, but now it has very few, scarcely three hundred, I believe. [139] This house has no vote. One religious, who is sufficient, generally lives there; he can confess himself at the many convents near by, reached both by water and by land.

At this time Father Quinones, [140] a son of the house at Mejico, died among the Tagals. The Indians cannot forget his life, for his penances and mortifications were great, and he is commonly regarded as a saint. He worked hard in his ministry, and gave the Indians excellent instruction. He compiled a grammar and lexicon of the Tagal language, and he was the first one to give the rules of the Tagal mode of speech, so that the mysteries of our redemption could be declared better to the Indians by one talking their language perfectly. He was learned, and graduated in both laws; but he did not preach because of an impediment in his speech, which was somewhat stammering....

[It is related that what was considered his body was found in 1634 [141] to be in perfect preservation. Father Munoz died while still a young man.]



Chapter XXVIII

Of the election of our fathet Fray Juan de Valderrama

When the time for the election came, namely, May 22, 1590, all the capitulars, who were now coming from all parts, assembled. They came from the Bisayas in their caracoas, and from llocos, some by land and some by sea, for the election. Those among the Tagals and in Pampanga were living nearer, and accordingly, without being absent over Lent from their missions, they came at the critical moment and entered Manila at the time set by our rules. Finally, all assembled, and considered and consulted in regard to the person most suitable, in their opinion, for the good and welfare of the province. That, to my way of thinking, is what the religious always take by the horns, as men who place the common welfare before the spiritual (or rather, private) good. Finally, they thought that father Fray Juan de Henao (or rather, Valderrama) was the man most suitable for that occasion. Accordingly, they elected him, and his election was a most fortunate event, for he was very religious and very devoted to his institution. Hence he governed with great prudence and devotion.

During his term some new priorates were established, which seemed advisable for the good government and administration of the Indians. Among them was that of Arayat, located in the farthest corner of Pampanga. It had a goodly population at the beginning, but now the population has dwindled to less than one hundred Indians; [142] for on one side the Zambales, and on the other the conscriptions, have been consuming them, as is seen at present in other districts. He also established religious and visited the provinces very carefully, and provided in all things quite in accordance with the obligation of our calling.

At this time happened a wonderful miracle in the province of llocos, whose memory endures unto today. It was as follows. Among the religious who were going to Filipinas quite ordinarily, in great numbers, went father Fray Pedro de la Cruz, [143] to whom our Lord gave much of His spirit, and who was called commonly "the Apostle of the Filipinas;" and for him the Lord worked many wonderful miracles. The province of Pangasinan—which as we said above we gave to the religious fathers of our father St. Dominic (perhaps from this fact, the latter have taken occasion to write that he was their religious; but the trick matters not; only it is not right to take him from those to whom he belongs, for the stones which shine with more luster in religion are those in whom our Lord shows more of His piety and mercy)—fell to this religious and holy man. This servant of God, then, being in a village of that province called Bagnotan, saw an Indian woman carrying a baby, to whom she had but recently given birth. The religious was doubtless moved by the spirit of heaven in his question. The Indian woman answered that she was taking the baby to bury it alive, for it had been born blind. When he asked her for her reason, she said that they had the custom of immediately burying alive any child born who was incapable of serving its parents, for in such case the latter had no interest or hope in its living. For it was an arduous task to give them being, to bear them in travail, to rear them through childhood and support them all their lives, since such children could not requite so many benefits. No arguments availed to persuade the Indian woman of the contrary, until the holy man made an agreement with her, namely, that she should give him the child, and that he would rear her and support her as his own daughter. With this agreement, the mother gave the child to Father Pedro de la Cruz, and he entered his convent with his new daughter. He got a woman to nurse her at the price of four reals per month, and then with his right as father, set about baptizing her. He did so, and it was our Lord's pleasure, for the credit of His servant, the value of holy baptism, and His own glory, and likewise so that that devilish custom should cease, that, as soon as the infant received the water of holy baptism, she gained her sight, although she had indeed been born blind....



Chapter XXIX

Of the second election of our father Fray Diego Alvarez

Father Fray Diego de Alvarez left so good an estimation of himself during the three years of his service as provincial, and governed with so great prudence, that so great a desire for his rule was aroused that, upon the arrival of the time assigned by our rules, the fathers did not wish to make any new trials of conditions which, although in appearance good, afterwards are found deceitful. They had had experience of the prudence of father Fray Diego Alvarez, and accordingly reelected him so that they might enjoy him for the second time; for in truth he had been a father to them. Hence he was elected unanimously, May 6, 1593. His election was very favorably received in the islands, for he was always much loved by his own and by others; and he always showed great judgment, preserving the province during his two trienniums in that flower and rigor of devotion which it had at first, and also glorifying the province with the new inauguration of houses and convents.

He established a religious in Pototan, a village then ruined; [144] and that village, as it was so small, was united, above Suagui, with another called Baong. [145] Accordingly, a church was built there. This convent of Baong had more than one thousand Indians, and was a well-known place for recreation; but now, although it endures, it has but six hundred Indians. As it is remote from trade, and situated inland, residence there is regarded as exile. It is one day's journey from Dumangas, and its river empties into that of Alaguer.

This chapter also established religious in Sibucao, a matter of one legua from the Suagui River, up the river Alaguer. The road also turned from Dumangas by ascending the river, although by land the journey is shorter. This convent was very well located here, for, in short, it is within sight of so gloomy [146] a river, and very convenient for the religious. Afterward the fathers thought that they were acting wisely in moving the convent one-half day's journey inland to a village called Laglag, very inconvenient for the religious. But indeed it is apparent how the fathers of former days sought rather the comfort of the natives than their own convenience; accordingly, wherever they found the most people, there they went. This convent has more than one thousand Indians, and two religious live there ordinarily. It is one of the good convents of the province of Bisayas, and has a wooden church. [147]

The bishop of Sugbu, Don Fray Pedro de Agurto, bestowed the district of Salog upon the province, as I have said before. It is very near the port and fort of Ilong-ilong. It is an excellent port, and has now been improved through becoming the property of his Majesty. This convent has more than one thousand Indians in charge, and generally has two religious. Its chief center is on the coast, or rather, near the coast, on a fine river, and its visitas are inland.

Religious were established also in the village of Octong, one of the chief villages of the Bisayas. That convent has a vote, and is in charge of more than one thousand two hundred Indians. [148] It is one-eighth legua from the village of Arevalo. This village was well inhabited, and the people spread along that coast. The Dutch burned it once, as well as the convents of Salog and Tigbauan; but it was rebuilt, better than ever. In regard to the people along the coast, they have diminished greatly, for the ravages [of pirates] on that coast are frightful. I cannot understand how the Indians can endure so much, for they have too much toil—now with the little fleet that defends their coast, now with the ships sent to Ternate, whose boats are laded and provisioned in that port. Two religious live in that convent, which is adorned with considerable silver and many ornaments. The people are intelligent, as they are reared with Castilians. The convent is situated in the Sugbu bishopric.

Religious were established in Potol, [149] the first point on Panay Island coming from Manila. That convent enjoys an exceedingly large stipend, for its jurisdiction extends very far. It has as visitas the five islands mentioned previously, and all those coasts. Thus it had more than two thousand Indians. Later fleeing from their enemies, more came to the island, four leguas up the river of Ibahay. The river is so long that it has an ascent of as many more leguas. This was my first priorate in 1611, when it was yet good. That year came three severe hurricanes—called baguios—which ruined the country, and laid low the church and house, which was very large and fine. I rebuilt it. Afterward our Father Barona [150] exchanged it for that of Tigbauan. The bishop of Sugbu made two benefices of that district, and two beneficiaries reside there at present. But the natives always remember the first religious that they had, for what is known first is liked more—but not because they have ceased to be tended with good devotion.

During this three years, priorates were established in many convents in llocos, as in that of Tagudin. That convent suffers greatly from the Igorrotes, and on that account is almost depopulated. [151] A priorate was established in Candon, an important priorate of that province and the best, although without a vote. It ministers to more than one thousand five hundred Indians. [152] Another was established in Nalbacan, a priorate with a vote, although it has been greatly exhausted by the burning of the church and convent. Batac also is an excellent priorate, and now is one of those that have a vote and are more esteemed. Resident religious were established in Dinglao, [153] which is an excellent vicariate. Religious were placed in Bauang. All these convents belong to the bishopric of Nueva Segovia or Cagayan, as above stated.

In the island of Manila, that is, in the archbishopric of Manila, religious were established, in Caruyan and Quingua. Now these last two are vicariates, and do not have one thousand Indians.

The religious living in them can scarcely support himself. [154]

(To be concluded.)



Bibliographical Data

The following documents are obtained from MSS. in the Archivo general de Indias, Sevilla:

1. Letter from Manila Dominicans.—"Simancas—Eclesiastico; Audiencia de Filipinas; cartas y expedientes de personas eclesiasticas de Filipinas; anos de 1609 a 1644; est. 68, caj. 1, leg. 43."

2. Letters from Juan Nino de Tavora, 1629.—"Simancas—Secular; cartas y espedientes del gobernador de Filipinas vistos en el Consejo; Audiencia de Filipinas; anos de 1629 a 1639; est. 67, caj. 6, leg. 8."

3. Letters from Juan Nino de Tavora, 1630.—The same as No. 2.

The following document is obtained from Pastells's edition of Colin's Labor evangelica:

4. Decree regarding missions.—In vol. iii, p. 686.

The following document is taken from the Ventura del Arco MSS. (Ayer library):

5. Relation of 1629-30.—In vol. i, pp. 617-625.

6. Medina's Historia de la orden de S. Agustin is partly translated in full, partly synopsized, from a copy of the printed work in the possession of the Editors.



NOTES

[1] See Vol. xxii, p. 128.

[2] See, post, the statements of the fiscal at Madrid regarding the various points of this letter. His examination was made and his opinions noted before the decrees of the Council were given.

[3] Referring to the Dutch East India Company, formed by the consolidation (1602) of the various trading companies in the Orient, by the States-General of Holland. This was for many years one of the richest and most successful of the world's great commercial associations; but in the eighteenth century its condition became one of decline. When Holland and Belgium were conquered by France, in 1795, the Dutch East India Company was practically abolished. Thereafter, until 1808, the Dutch Indias were administered by a committee of the States-General, and in the latter year their government was formally vested in the Dutch nation, which has from that time retained it.

[4] Spanish vandala: a Filipino word, signifying a forcible assessment on the natives for government supplies—i.e., a repartimiento; see explanation in Retana's Zuniga, ii, p. 532*. For later and different use of the word, see Zuniga's text (ut supra), i, p. 325.

[5] Alluding to the floods which, as often in former years, had recently inundated a part of the valley in which lies the City of Mexico. In 1627 heavy rains caused the bursting of the dams that confined the Quauhtitlan River, and parts of the city were overflowed. The same experience was repeated in 1629, but to such an extent that the entire city was under water, in most places more than five feet deep. It was more than four years before the city was freed from this calamity, and not until 1634 was this accomplished for the valley, by a series of earthquake shocks. See Bancroft's account of these floods, and the drainage works undertaken to prevent them, in his Hist. Mexico, iii, pp. 7-11, 85-91.

[6] The petition here addresses the governor instead of the king.

[7] See Vol. VIII, pp. 127, 133, where the encomiendas of Butuan and Oton are mentioned as held by Dona Lucia de Loarca. This would indicate that Silva's wife was a granddaughter of Miguel de Loarca, and that her father was a son of the latter.

[8] The above matter in quotation marks, as appears from a footnote in the Ventura del Arco MS., is taken from a letter written by Father Manuel Azevedo, rector of Manila, May 3,1630. Evidently "Manila" is an error for "Malaca," and the letter was probably written to Manila, and the above section embodied in the relation written from that place.

[9] See account of the establishment of this mission, in Vol. XVIII, p. 213.

[10] The festival here mentioned would seem, from its length, to mean the two feasts observed by the Chinese in the first month of the year—New Year's and the "feast of lanterns." See accounts of these and other feasts in Williams's Middle Kingdom, ii, pp. 76-84; and Winterbotham's Chinese Empire, ii, pp. 49, 50, 138-142.

[11] Fray Juan de Medina was born at Sevilla, and entered the Augustinian convent of that city. On reaching the Philippines he was assigned to the Bisayan group, and was known to those natives by the name of "the apostle of Panay." A zealous worker, he was wont on feast days to preach to his flock in three languages—Bisayan, Chinese, and Spanish. He was minister at Laglag in 1613, at Mambusao in 1615, at Dumangas in 1618, at Panay in 1619, and at Passi in 1623; prior of the convent at Cebu in 1626; and definitor in 1629. After twenty years of missionary labors, being soul-tormented, he asked and secured reluctant permission to return to Spain; but the exigencies of the weather prevented the ship from making its voyage. Three years later he obtained permission to make the same voyage, but died at sea (1635). Diaz, in his Conquistas, says that Medina composed many things in aid of his missionary work; but only the present history and four volumes of manuscript sermons in the Panayana language are known with certainty. See Perez's Catalogo, pp. 83-85; and Pardo de Tavera's Biblioteca Filipina, p. 255.

[12] The island of Panay, in which is a village of the same name. The Augustinian missionaries began their labors in this island in 1572, at Oton (or Ogtong). Their first establishment in the archipelago was at Cebu (1565). Dumangas mission was begun in 1578; Aclan, in 1581; Passi, in 1593; Ibahay, in 1611. All these are in Panay. See list of convents and villages founded by the Augustinians in the Philippines, from 1565 to 1880, at the end of Medina's Historia, pp. 481-488.

[13] The monument of Legazpi and Urdaneta presented in this volume was the work of the sculptor, Agustin Querol, and of the architect, Luis Maria Cabello. On the front and rear of the pedestal are the arms of Manila and Spain. On one side are allegorical representations of the sea and, valor for Legazpi, and on the other the emblems of science for Urdaneta. The pedestal ends above in a border upon which are the names of Magallanes, Elcano, Jofre de Loaisa, and Villalobos. This monument is due to Senor Gutierrez de la Vega, who initiated a public subscription during the last years of the Spanish regime for a monument to the two discoverers. As it arrived at Manila where Spanish authority in the islands was tottering or ended, it was placed in position by the Americans. See "Espana y America," (Augustinian review), for April, 1903, pp. 479-485.

[14] See Vol. XV, p. 102, note 66.

[15] Western group of the Carolinas. They were called Los Reyes, because they were discovered on the sixth of January, when the festival of the holy kings is celebrated.—Miguel Coco, O.S.A.

Fray Miguel Coco—born at Zamora in 1860, and a resident in the Philippines during 1881-95—was editor of Medina's Historia, on which he made copious annotations. Many of these we reproduce or synopsize, in English translation, all of which are signed by his name.

[16] The Corales (or Coral), San Esteban, or Jardines Islands are now the northern Carolinas.—Coco.

[17] Now the Palaos.—Coco.

[18] For the name of this latter island, see Vol. II, p. 68. The Spanish editor of Medina, in referring to San Agustin's Conquistas (p. 26), where the name of this island is discussed, says wrongly that the name was given by the Legazpi expedition. It is one of the western Carolinas.

[19] In hydrography the name placeres is given to the layer of sand in stagnant water or alluvion which usually has particles of gold. The Placeres are in die western part of the Carolinas. See San Agustin's Conquistas, p. 67, and Montero y Vidal's El archipielago filipino (Madrid, 1886), pp. 443-499.—Coco.

[20] The largest of the Marianas or Ladrone Islands is Guam, which was ceded to the United States by Spain in 1898. The remaining twelve smaller islands of the group were transferred to Germany by Spain.

[21] Retana (Estadismo, ii, p. 512*) says that the baroto is now a boat dug out of a single log, sometimes of more than eighty feet in length. They are used principally for the lading and discharging of vessels, and are native craft of Cebu and neighboring islands. See U.S. Gazetteer of Philippine Islands (Washington, 1902).

[22] See Vol. I, pp. 105-111, for the English translation of this bull. The translation of the portion quoted occupies parts of pp. 108, 109.

[23] This image is not now carried to the Cathedral on St. Vidal's day. It is carried in procession, however, on the second Sunday succeeding Epiphany when the Church celebrates the feast of the sweet name of Jesus. Until the end of Spain's domination of the islands the banner of Castile was also carried in this procession.—Coco.

[24] Literally "barren loves," the Chrysopopogon acicutatus (Trin.). It is described by Delgado (Historia, p. 744) as a brake that is found quite commonly in the fields, and has small ears that bear a kind of very small millet, like that called vallico in Spain, which grows among the wheat. It has a rough mildew that sticks to the clothes and penetrates them, which the Spaniards call amores secos. It is especially abundant where there are cattle; and when these are grazing, the plants penetrate their eyes, even blinding them because they grow so thickly, and they must be withdrawn with the fingers.

[25] Charts of the villages of Opong and Cordoba in the island of Mactan, made about 1893, showed that the island possessed 15,060 inhabitants.—Coco.

Bulletin No. 1, of Census of the Philippine Islands: 1903, "Population of the Philippines" (issued by the Bureau of the Census, of the Department of Commerce and Labor, Washington, 1904), gives the present population of Mactan, which is in the province of Cebu, as 17,540, all civilized.

The Philippine Islands are divided into provinces or comandancias, the latter meaning military district, and in which civil government has not yet been established. The province or comandancia is divided into municipalities and barrios. That barrio or ward in which the municipal government is located is called the poblacion or centro. The census of the various municipalities has been returned for each barrio. See Bulletin No. 1, ut supra.

[26] Cebu and San Nicolas are now two independent towns. The census of the latter, about 1893, showed 20,498 inhabitants.—Coco.

The population of the island of Cebu, according to the census of 1903 (see Bulletin No. I, ut supra), was 592,247; of the city of Cebu, 31,079; or, if the closer-built part of this municipality, which may properly be regarded as the city of Cebu, be considered, its population is 18,330.

The steady increase in the total population of the Philippines, as shown by various reports and sources, more or less authoritative and trustworthy, is seen in the following figures. At the time of the discovery by Magallanes in 1521, the total population is supposed to have numbered about 500,000. In 382 years, according to the census report of 1903, the population (now 7,635,426, slightly more than the 1900 census of New York State) has multiplied fifteen times. The increase during the past century was 1.5 per cent. Of the present population, 6,987,686 are civilized or partly so, and 647,740 are wild and uncivilized, although they have some knowledge of domestic arts. Of this latter number about 23,000 are Negritos, who are supposed to be the aborigines of the archipelago. Sources (ecclesiastical and governmental) give the census for various years as follows; they cannot all be taken as definite, although some are approximately so:

1735 837,182 1799 1,522,224 1805 1,741,234 1812 1,933,331 1815 2,502,994 1817 2,062,805 1818 2,026,230 1827 2,593,287 1833 3,153,290 1840 3,096,031 1845 3,434,007 1850 3,800,163 1862 4,734,533 1870 4,698,477 1876 5,567,685 1879 5,817,268 1887 5,984,727 1891 6,101,682 1896 6,261,339

That guesswork has figured to some extent in these figures is evident; but as a whole they represent tolerably well the growth of the islands. The figures for 1903 are to be relied on. See Bulletin No. 1, ut supra, and U.S. Gazetteer of the Philippine Islands, pp. 25-31.

[27] The episcopal residence is now in Vigan, Ilocos Sur, where it was removed in 1755 from Lal-lo, Cagayan.—Coco.

[28] The island now known as Samar was formerly called Samar in the south, and Ibabao in the north.—Coco.

[29] The island of Panay has at present one hundred villages, scattered through the three provinces of Iloilo, Capiz, and Antique, and the two districts of Concepcion and Aclan—with a population in 1893 of about 790,772 people, of whom the Augustinians had in charge 561,158.—Coco.

The "Bulletin" above cited gives Panay (which comprises parts of Antique, Capiz, and Iloilo provinces) 743,646 people, of whom 14,933 are wild.

[30] This is a fact if the figures of the U.S. Gazetteer of the Philippine Islands are correct. Those figures show that the mainland of Luzon contains 43,075 square miles and that of Mindanao 45,559. While these numbers may not yet be taken as authoritative they may be regarded as approximate until actual and scientific surveys are made. Algue's Atlas follows the generally accepted though perhaps erroneous idea that Luzon is the larger of the two, its figures being 47,238 and 36,237 square miles, respectively.

[31] This cross is still preserved. It was enclosed in an octagonal temple by the Augustinians in the time of the Augustinian bishop of Cebu, Fray Santos Maranon, in order to preserve it from the weather, and from the natives, who, regarding it as miraculous, were accustomed to take splinters from it as relics. The foundation of the enclosure is of stone, and it has a grated window which permits passers-by to see the cross. The latter is wooden, not stone, as Montero y Vidal states in his Historia general, i, p. 17. This is the identical cross erected by Magallanes in 1521.—Coco.

[32] This statement is an error. Drake's first trip to Spain was made to the Biscayan coast in 1564, and was only for the voyage. See Julian Corbett's Sir Francis Drake. (London, 1890).

[33] Fray Bernabe Villalobos was born in Leon, and professed in the Augustinian convent of San Felipe el Real. He went to the Philippines in 1590, where he had charge of missions in Halaud (1591), Panay (1593), and Oton (1596). He was twice prior of Manila (1602 and 1613), twice of Cebu (1606 and 1618), and definitor (1616), and later labored in the Tagal missions. His death occurred at Manila in 1646. See Perez's Catalogo, p. 41.

[34] Compare the materialism of the North American Indians, in Cleveland reissue of Jesuit Relations, viii, p. 119; xx, p. 71; 1, p. 289.

[35] Fray Juan de Alva was born of an illustrious family in Segovia, and professed in the Augustinian convent at Toledo in 1514. In 1535 he went to Mexico, where he labored for thirty-three years. At the age of seventy-two he went to the Philippines, landing at Cebu in 1569. He labored successfully in Panay, and founded the church of Dumangas. In 1572 he was elected first prior of the convent of Manila and definitor, after which (1575) he began the foundation of Pasig. He became rector provincial of the Philippines in 1576, and died at Manila, September 17, 1577. See Perez's Catalogo, p. 8.

[36] Fray Alonso Jimenez was a native of Malaga, and took his vows in the Augustinian convent at Mexico in 1558. He accompanied Juan de Alva to the Philippines, where he voted in the first provincial chapter. He was the first missionary to the islands of Masbate, Leyte, Samar, and Burias. Thence he went to Ibalon in the province of Camarines, where he resided several years, and made many excursions into Albay and Sorsogon. He was prior of Cebu in 1575. Endowed with great facility in learning languages, he became known as the first linguist of the islands. His death occurred in August, 1577, at the Cebu convent. He composed a catechism in the Bicol language. See Perez's Catalogo, p. 9.

[37] Fray Diego Ordonez Vivar was a native of Guadalajara in Nueva Galicia, and professed in the convent of Mexico in 1557. Arriving at the Philippines in 1570 he became the first missionary to Bulacan in 1572, provincial secretary in 1580 and 1584, minister at Hagonoy in 1582 and 1587, procurator-general in 1583, and minister at Tendo in 1594 and 1599. He died in Pampanga in 1603. Agustin Maria, O.S.A., in his Osario Venerable (still unpublished) says that Ordonez was in Japan and was an eye-witness of the martyrdom of the Franciscans in 1596. See Perez's Catalogo, pp. 9, 10.

[38] Fray Diego de Espinar was born in Toledo and entered a convent in Castilla. Almost immediately upon his arrival at Cebu (1570) he was assigned to the region about Laguna de Bay. He was the first missionary at Bonbon (1575), Mindoro (1578), Paranaque (1580), and Candaba (1581). He took part in the first diocesan council celebrated by Bishop Salazar; and in 1587 went to Macao, where he lived until 1596. While returning to Manila in the latter year he was wrecked and drowned between Mindanao and Borneo (1597). He had been definitor in 1581. See Perez's Catalogo, p. 10.

[39] "For he finds shackles who finds kindnesses."

[40] St. Gregory, Homil. II in Evangelia.—Coco. Englished, this reads: "Therefore, he desires to plunder him who carries a public treasure along the street."

[41] This islet is today called Corregidor. The name Mariveles is applied to the mountain ridge in the southern part of Bataan Province, whose brow forms, with Corregidor, one of the entrances to Manila Bay. It is a great pity that Corregidor is not well fortified, in case of war with a foreigner, as it is a very strategic point, and the key to the port and city of Manila.—Coco.

[42] Buzeta and Bravo, Diccionario Geografico, say that Manila Bay is thirty-three leguas in circumference, and has a maximum depth of thirty-five brazas.

Manila Bay is one of the finest bays in the world and by far the best in the Far East. It will accommodate all the fleets of the world. Its greatest dimensions are from Tubutubu Island in the estuary of Orani, bay of Pampanga, in the northwest angle of the shore of the greater bay, to Las Pinas, thirty-five miles, near the boundary between Cavite and Rizal; and from the delta of the river Grande Pampanga, on the shores of Bulacan in the northeast, to Corregidor Island, southwest, thirty-one miles. It is one hundred and twenty miles in circumference. Five of the important rivers of the archipelago empty into it. See U.S. Gazetteer of the Philippine Islands, p. 186.

[43] Tondo now contains 39,043 civilized inhabitants. It is the most northerly and populous district along the bay shore above the Pasig. Its inhabitants are largely engaged in the tobacco and cigar industries, and in fishing, weaving, and gardening for the Manila market. See Bulletin No. 1 of the Census Bureau, and U.S. Gazetteer of the Philippine Islands, p. 188.

[44] Psalms cxxi, 7.—Coco.

[45] Matthew xvii, 20.—Coco.

[46] See Vol. VI, p. 115, note 27.

[47] See Vol. VI, p. 88, note 22.

[48] See Vol. IX, p. 95, note 18.

[49] Fray Agustin de Alburquerque was a native of Castilla, and professed at the convent of Salamanca. Batangas became the theater of his missionary labors in the islands. He was definitor in 1572, prior of Tondo in 1575, and prior provincial in 1578, renouncing to the Franciscans during his term the omnimoda ecclesiastical jurisdiction. He tried to sell himself as a slave, in order that he might introduce Christianity into China. He is the author of the first or second Tagal grammar, the Franciscans claiming that the first was written by Fray Juan de Plasencia. He died in 1580. See Perez's Catalogo, pp. 13, 14.

[50] Fray Francisco Merino took his vows in the Augustinian province of Castilla. After his arrival in the islands he labored in the province of Iloilo until his death. Although he was proposed as one of the associates of Father Rada on the latter's memorable journey to China in 1576, Jeronimo Marin went in his stead; while he himself accompanied Juan de Salcedo and Pedro Chaves on the Camarines expedition. He died in 1581. See Perez's Catalogo, p. 14.

[51] Fray Juan de Orta, born in Moguer, in the province of Huelva, professed in the convent of Mexico in 1558. He was a novice under Urdaneta. Shortly after his arrival at the islands, he learned the Bicol language, in which he evangelized with great success. A number of villages founded by him were later handed over to the care of the Franciscans. In 1575 he returned to Manila to help the prior there, where he worked zealously, having in charge also until his death (in Manila on Palm Sunday, 1577) the village of Paranaque. See Perez's Catalogo, p. 12.

[52] Isaiah v, 20.—Coco.

[53] This edifice is still in existence. It is the only one with a stone vault which has been constructed in the archipelago. It resisted with but little damage the series of most severe earthquakes which devastated Manila so frequently. The earthquake of 1880 split one of its towers, which the fathers of the convent afterward ordered to be pulled down. The church is the most capacious and beautiful in Manila, in spite of these circumstances. Its architect was the Augustinian lay-brother Fray Antonio Herrara, nephew or son of the famous architect who built the Escorial.—Coco.

[54] In reg., chapter viii. This is in English: "And therefore, the more fully that you shall watch over a common possession than your own, so much the more fully shall you learn how to progress."

[55] St. Poss, in his life of St. Augustine [Vita S. Augustini], chapter xxix. Englished the above quotation is, "He made no will, for, as he was a pauper in Christ, he had nothing."

[56] The U.S. Gazetteer of the Philippine Islands (p. 374) says that the lake of Bonbon or Taal is second in importance among the lakes of Luzon. Its circumference is seventy-five miles, being seventeen miles from north to south and twelve and one-half miles from east to west: It reaches a depth of one hundred and six fathoms very near shore. The crater of the volcano of Taal in its center supplies quantities of sulphur.

[57] The last parochial census (before 1893) gave Taal 32,908 inhabitants, and says that from it was formed the village of Lemery, which has 16,738 inhabitants.—Coco.

Bulletin No. 1 (ut supra) gives the present civilized population of Taal as 17,525. The chief industries of the people are agriculture, herding, fishing, and the coast trade. Lemery has 11,150 civilized inhabitants.

[58] For a late discussion of the volcanoes of the Philippines, see Bulletin No. 3 of The Census of the Philippine Islands, "Volcanoes and Seismic Centers," published by the Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of the Census (Washington, 1904).

[59] Today (1893) Tanauan has 21,363 inhabitants; Lipa, 40,031; Bauang, 39,275; and Batangas, 35,156.—Coco.

The Bulletin's figures give Tanauan 18,263 civilized inhabitants; Lipa, 37,934; Bauang, 39,094; and Batangas, 33,131.

[60] This lake has a coast-line of 108 miles, and its two greatest diameters are respectively 32 and 28 miles. Fifteen rivers empty into it. See U.S. Gazetteer of the Philippine Islands.

[61] The original reads: "porque dos Iglesias," which we have regarded as a misprint for "porque dos leguas."

[62] The original is "de voto." Perhaps Medina means that the religious at this visita had the right of voting at the election of the provincial.—Coco.

[63] Calumpit has now (1893) 15,024 inhabitants.—Coco.

Bulletin No. 1 (ut supra) gives the present civilized population of Calumpit as 13,897.

[64] A small bird, native to the island of Cerdena, whose nest is utilized by the cuckoo. The context, however, suggests that the word may be a misprint for mezquitas, referring to the mezquit (Algarobia) of Nueva Espana—the writer meaning that along the Quingua valley were numerous thickets of some shrub resembling the mezquit. The river is now fringed with clumps of prickly bamboo. It is also possible that mosquitas is simply a misprint for mosquitos ("mosquitoes").

[65] Fray Pedro Mejia was born in La Mancha, and professed in the Augustinian convent at Valladolid. He became prior of Guadalupe in 1621, and later definitor and visitor. He was minister at Narvacan in 1611 and of the Tagal villages of Calumpit, Bauan, and Guiguinto until his death in 1659. See Perez's Catalogo, p. 94.

[66] Fray Luis Ronquillo, nephew of Governor Gonzalo Ronquillo, was born in the city of Arevalo (Spain), in the province of Avila. He was lecturer in theology, master, and prior of the convent of Arenas. He went to the Philippines in 1624, where he became preacher in 1626, definitor-general in 1628, prior of Manila and master of novitiates in 1638, prior of Tondo and Malate, and definitor of the province in 1632; and was at the missions of Calumpit (1629), Bay (1635), Bulacan (1641), and Pasig (1642). He died at Manila in 1644. See Perez's Catalogo, p. 102.

[67] The census prior to 1893 gave Lubao 20,568 inhabitants.—Coco.

Its present civilized population according to Bulletin No. 1 (ut supra) is 19,063.

[68] Doubtless a mistake of the author, for Manila is about three hundred and twenty miles from Iloilo.—Coco.

[69] Today (1893) administered by seculars, to whom the Augustinians ceded it.—Coco.

[70] Today Halaud.—Coco.

[71] Duenas.—Coco.

[72] Dingle.—Coco.

[73] The island of Guimaras, today (1893) in charge of seculars.—Coco.

[74] The present province of Antique.—Coco.

[75] The Chinese call their country Song-Song.—Coco.

[76] "Manguianes.—The heathen, unaffiliated natives inhabiting the interior of Mindoro, Romblon, and Tablas. Manguian (forest people) is a collective, name of different languages and races. According to R. Jordana, the Manguianes of Mindoro are divided into four branches, one of which, Bukil or Buquel, is a bastard race of Negritos, while a second in external appearance reminds one of Chinese Mestizos, and on that account it is to be regarded as a Mongoloid type. The other two are pure Malay." (Blumentritt's "Native Tribes of the Philippines," in Smithsonian Report, 1899, p. 541.)

Colin says (Labor evangelica, lib. i, cap. iv, sec. 30) that the tribes dwelling at the headwaters of the rivers in the various islands are known by almost as many different names—among these, as Zambales, Manguianes, etc. "It is understood that they are mestizos of the other tribes, the savage and the civilized; and that for this reason they rank between those two classes of peoples in color, dress, and customs." He also describes their habits and mode of life (cap. vi, sec. 52), and says of them: "They are a simple, honest, temperate people," and adds that, up to the time of writing his book, they had not been christianized, "save some six hundred in the district and visitas of Nauhan, who received baptism during the few years in which the Society of Jesus had charge of them."

Murillo Velarde, S.J., states in his Historia de Philipinas (Manila, 1749), fol. 52, that "in 1631 the cura of Mindoro, who was a secular priest, ceded that ministry to the Society;... the superior lived at Nauhan in Mindoro, and Ours undertook to preach to and convert the Manguianes, heathen Indians of that island." On fol. 63, verso, and folio 64 he gives some account of these labors, and of the customs of these people, under the date 1633.

Sawyer (Inhabitants of the Philippines, p. 206) describes the Manguianes as "probably a hybrid Negrito-Visaya race." He mentions three varieties of these people, of whom "those residing near the western coast are much whiter, with lighter hair and full beards;" those of the southern part show evident signs of Chinese blood; and those in the center are darker and less intelligent. He praises the morality and honesty of the Manguianes, as also does Worcester (Philippine Islands, p. 413).

[77] Fray Diego Mojica was born of noble parents in a Castilian town, and took the Augustinian habit in Salamanca. After living for some years in Mexico, he went (1573) to the Philippines, where he was sent to Mindoro. He was the first prior of the Convent of Santa Maria de Gracia in 1575; twice definitor; minister of Tondo and Batangas; prior of Pasig in 1578; preacher and confessor to the Spaniards in 1580; president of the provincial chapter in 1581. He died in 1584. Extremely modest by nature, he never sought or wished preferment.

[78] Fray Alonso Gutierrez professed in the province of Castilla, and was a conventual in Cebu in 1573. He ministered to Halaud and Oton successively in 1576 and 1577; was preacher and confessor in 1581; minister at Paranaque in 1584, at Tabucao in 1584, at Pasig in 1586, and at Tondo in 1587. In the last-named year he was definitor and lecturer, and in 1590 president of the chapter, dying at Manila in 1605. See Perez's Catalogo, p. 15.

[79] Fray Juan Gallegos took his vows at the convent at Mexico about 1566. Upon his arrival at the islands, he became a conventual at Lubao. He was first minister to Bay in 1578, and to Tabucao in 1581. He died while definitor, at the end of 1581. Ibid., p. 15.

[80] Fray Francisco Manrique professed at Valladolid, and on his arrival at the islands relieved Father Rada (September 11, 1575) of the ministry at Oton. He was afterward definitor and missionary at Lubao (1576); rector provincial in 1577; first minister to Candaba in 1579; prior of Manila, 1575, 1578, 1581, and 1584; definitor, 1581; vicar-provincial, 1582; and first prior of Macao, 1587. His death must have occurred in 1588, as his name does not appear after that in the provincial records. Ibid. p. 16.

[81] Fray Sebastian Molina, after his arrival at the islands, became first minister to Macabebe in 1575. He died in September of the following year. Ibid., p. 16.

[82] Fray Alonso Heredero was an austere religious, and was three times minister at Macabebe (1576, 1578, and 1581). He was definitor and minister at Calumpit in 1584, and again definitor and minister at Mejico in 1590. He died in the latter town in 1591. Ibid., p. 16.

[83] The viceroy of Nueva Espana at this time was Martin Enriquez de Almansa; he arrived in the City of Mexico November 5, 1568, and held his office until October, 1580, when he was succeeded by the Conde de la Coruna.

[84] The Franciscans were in charge of these islands in 1893.—Coco.

[85] The "Christian Doctrine" of Cardinal Bellarmino; see Vol. XVII, p. 70, and note.

[86] Only the name of Parian remains today; and of the church not even the ruins.—Coco.

[87] San Agustin (Conquistas p. 381) says that the Augustinian mission to the Chinese was established in the Tondo convent in 1581, and placed under the special charge of Fray Diego Munoz. Later a suit arose between the Augustinians and Dominicans (Conquistas, p. 533) as to the administration of the Chinese at Baybay. It was settled in 1612, on condition of the two orders celebrating alternately Corpus Christi day.

[88] Ecclesiastes xi, 30.—Coco.

[89] See Gonzalez de Mendoza's Historia de la gran China (1586), for a relation of this journey. Part of it may be found in Vol. VI of this series, pp. 114-125.

[90] This is evidently the Historia de la gran China by Gonzalez de Mendoza.

[91] In Tagal, molave.—Coco.

[92] Bulacan in the census preceding 1893 had a population of 13,659.—Coco.

Bulletin No. 1 gives Bulacan 11,589 civilized inhabitants.

[93] The Rio Grande of Pampanga.

[94] In 1893, the inhabitants numbered 15,156, with a convent and church of solid masonry.—Coco.

Bulletin No. 1 makes the present civilized population 11,783.

[95] In 1893 Macabebe had 19,801 inhabitants, and a stone church and convent.—Coco.

The civilized population now (see Bulletin No. 1, ut supra) is 14,405.

[96] The population of the province of Pampanga is reported for five different years as follows: 1818, 106,381; 1840, 152,232; 1850, 156,272; 1870, 203,137 (these four including Tarlac); 1887, 223,902. The estimate of the U.S. Gazetteer of the Philippine Islands, from which these numbers are taken, figures a population of 223,922 for 1901. Bulletin No. 1 (ut supra) reports 223,754 for 1903, of whom 222,656 are civilized, and 1,098 wild.

[97] The attitude of the great Augustinian Philippine writer, San Agustin, and in general the friars of the last century of the Spanish regime, toward the native is well shown in the following note by the Spanish editor, Father Coco: "The Indians have not changed in this regard. Since they have not lost their disposition they preserve with it their vices. If the father does not interest himself in the regulation of bridges, roads, the maintenance of the children at school, etc., nothing useful is done. In this interest and zeal, the father must not relax one instant, for the very moment in which the vigilance of the father rests, little by little all the good that he has done in the village disappears. The greater number of the Ilocan plains are crossed by irrigation canals, brought to completion by the initiative of the fathers, and preserved until now by the watchfulness of the same persons. All this, as is natural, brings endless troubles and not small sorrow to the parish priest."

[98] Psalms xxxv, 7.—Coco.

[99] The author might have added something more, namely, that from the little that is enjoyed from the Spanish race, it is becoming so degenerate in the course of time that it is losing completely even the characteristic traces of its origin. It is giving the "leap backward," as we say here in common parlance.—Coco.

[100] The original is bozales, which is a term applied to negroes lately imported, or to inhabitants of the less polished provinces of Spain, newly arrived in Madrid.

[101] Dative of agibilis, a late Latin word coined from agere; meaning "what can be done or accomplished."

[102] Visitas in the Philippines are the distant suburbs of a village. They generally have their chapel and patron saint, and the chapel is called visita. The term has been extended to the suburbs. Many of the visitas are distant from the mother village four or six hours by horse, along impassable roads which cause great annoyances to the parish priests.—Coco.

[103] Odes, book iv, 24, 11. 30, 31. William Coutts in his translation of Horace (New York and Bombay, 1898) renders this passage as follows: "We hate virtue when safe amongst us, but seek for it when removed from our eyes, envious alike."

[104] Still today [1893], thanks to God, one may sleep in the convents with doors unlocked, without the slightest fear. However, now they are generally locked in the province of Manila.—Coco.