Siphons.—A flexible tube of some kind, whether of india-rubber, gutta-percha, or, still better, of macintosh, strained over rings, would be very valuable as a siphon: both for filling large kegs out of buckets and for emptying them again. Vulcanised india-rubber becomes rotten after short use, and gutta-percha will stand no extremes of temperature.

Tanks for Wagons.—There still remain many large districts in Asia, Africa, and Australia which may be explored in wagons, but, so far as I am aware, no particular pattern of a water-tank, suitable for carriage on wheels, has yet been adopted by travellers. I believe kegs are generally used, but they are far too heavy for the requirements of a wagon. Probably the tins used for sending milk by cart and railway to towns, would be very serviceable for carrying water on expeditions. They are invariably made of the same shape, and only of few different sizes. Therefore experience must have shown that their pattern is better than any other yet devised. Their mouths can be padlocked, which is an important matter.

Macintosh Bags.—I would also recommend a trial of square bags of strong macintosh—say 18 inches deep and 10 inches square, in which case they would hold 60 lbs. of water—fitting into square compartments, in large panniers, like those in a bottle-basket. I have made some experiments upon this arrangement. The basket-work gives protection against blows and the jolting together of packages, and it yields without harm to a strain, and the bags yield also. Moreover, water is less churned in half-empty bags than in half-empty barrels. No unusual strength of materials would be required in making these bags: their mouths should be funnel-shaped, and corked at the neck of the funnel. The funnels should be wide at their mouths, for convenience in filling them; and a string to secure the cork should be tied round the neck of the funnel. The bags should have loops on their sides, through which a strap, passing underneath, might run, in order to Give a good hold for lifting them up. They could easily be filled as they lay in their compartments, and would only require to be lifted out in order to empty them; there is, therefore, no objection to their holding as much as 60 lbs. weight of water. An india-rubber tube as a siphon, and with a common spigot at the end of it, would be particularly useful. A pannier not much exceeding 30 inches long, by 20 broad, and 18 deep, would hold six of these bags, or 360 lbs. weight of water in all; and two such panniers would be ample for exploring purposes. I had a pannier and two bags made for a trial, which were quite satisfactory, and I found that the weight of the panniers and bags together was at the rate of 6 lbs. for each compartment; therefore the weight of these water-vessels is not more than 10 per cent. Of that of the water which they carry. It might be well to vary the contents of some of the compartments; putting, for instance, two or even three small bags into one, and tin cases into a few of the others, instead of the large bags. These panniers, with the bags inflated, and connected together by a stage, would form an excellent and powerful raft. If secured within a wagon about to cross a deep river, they would have enough power, in all ordinary cases, to cause it to float and not to sink to the bottom. I trust some explorer will try this plan. I may add that the macintosh water-bags cost me about 1 pound each.

Raw Hide Bags/—Captain Sturt, when he explored in Australia, took a tank in his cart, which burst, and besides that, he carried casks of water. By these he was enabled to face a desert country with a degree of success to which no traveller before had ever attained. For instance, when returning homewards, the water was found to be drying up on all sides of him. He was encamped by a pool where he was safe, whence the next stage was 118 miles, or 4 days' journey, but it was a matter of considerable doubt whether there remained any water at the end of the stage. It was absolutely necessary to reconnoitre, and in order to do so, he had first to provide the messenger with the means of returning, should the watering-place be found dry. He killed a bullock, skinned it, and filling the skin with water (which held 150 gallons), Sent it by an ex-dray 30 miles, with orders to bury it and to return. Shortly after he despatched a light one-horse cart, carrying 36 gallons of water; the horse and man were to drink at the hide, and then to go on. Thus they had 36 gallons to supply them for a journey of 176 miles, or 6 days, at 30 miles a day at the close of which they would return to the ox-hide—sleeping, in fact, 5 nights on 36 gallons of water. This a hardy, well-driven horse could do, even in the hottest climate.

To raise Water from Wells for Cattle.—By hand.—Let one man stand in the water, or just above it; another 5 feet higher; and again another higher still, if the depth of the well requires it. Then let the lowermost man dip a bucket in the water, and pass it from hand to hand upwards; the top man pours the water into a trough, out of which the cattle drink. This trough may be simply a ditch scratched in the ground; a piece of canvas should be thrown over it, if the soil be sandy, to keep the water from being lost before the cattle have time to drink it. Thus Eyre speaks of watering his horse, out of his black servant's duck frock. Light gutta-percha buckets are very useful in temperate climates; and so are baskets, with oilcloth inside them.

The drove of cattle should be brought up to 60 yards from the watering-place; then three or four should be driven out—they will run at once to the water. After they have drunk, drive them to one side, and let another three or four take their place, and so on; keeping the two droves quite distinct—those that have drunk, and those that are waiting to drink. They will drink at the rate of one per minute; sheep and goats drink very much faster. Never let the cattle go in a rush to the well, else they will stamp it in, most of them get no water, and they will all do a great deal of damage.

By horse power.—It does not fall within the scope of this book to describe water-wheels worked by cattle, or elaborate mechanism of any kind; I therefore only mention under this head, that the Tartars sometimes draw water from their wells, of 150 feet deep and upwards, by a rider harnessing the bucket-rope to his horse, and galloping him off to a mark that tells the proper distance. Their ropes are of twisted hair, and are made to run over a smoothed stone, or a log of wood.

[Sketches of pole and bucket and pump as described below].

A pole and bucket is a very convenient way of raising water from 4 to 12 feet. The bucket may be made of canvas, basket-work, leather, wood, or almost any other material; leakage, though considerable, is of little consequence, because the action of the apparatus is so quick, that there is not time for much water to be lost. This contrivance is used over almost the whole globe—less in England than elsewhere; it is very common where long poles can easily be obtained, as in fir forests.

Pump.—An excellent and very simple pump is used by the Arabs in Algeria. A piece of leather or waxed canvas, is stretched round one or more hoops; it forms a hollow cylinder, that admits of being shut flat like an accordion. The top and bottom of the cylinder are secured round the edges of two discs of wood. Holes are bored in these discs and leather valves are fitted to them. The lower disc is nailed to the bottom of a tub; the hole in it corresponds with the feed-pipe, and the valve that covers the hole opens upwards. The upper disc Is attached to the pump handle; the valves that cover the holes in this disc, open upwards also. When the leather-pump barrel is pressed flat, water flows through the upper valves into the barrel around it; when it is pulled out, water is sucked up through the feed-pipe, and an equal quantity is displaced from the barrel. This flows out into the trough. A bag would do as well as a tub, to hold the water which surrounds the pump-barrel; but, without the water which it is the object of either the one or the other to contain, the pump-barrel must be air-proof as well as water-proof. The action of this pump is marvellously perfect. It attracted much attention in the French Exhibition of 1855.



GUNS AND RIFLES.

General Remarks.—Breech-loaders.—At the present time when the merits of different kinds of breech-loader are so hotly discussed, when all that have yet been invented have some faults, and every month brings to light some new invention, it would be foolish in me to write anything about them; it would be obsolete before the great majority of my readers should have seen this book. Therefore omitting breech-loaders altogether from the present edition, I will confine myself to repeating what I have said before upon muzzle-loaders, with additions and alterations.

Size of Gun.—American bushrangers advocate a long heavy pea-rifle, on the plea of its accurate shooting, and the enormous saving in weight of ammunition when bullets of a small size are used. The objections to small-bored rifles are, insufficiency against large game (even with conical bullets), and a tendency to become foul after a few shots. A short light rifle, whether with a large or a small bore, is, I believe, utterly worthless. In the hands of a man trembling with running and with exhaustion, it shakes like a wand: the shorter the rifle, the more quickly does it oscillate, and of course, in the same proportion, is it difficult to catch the exact moment when the sights cover the object.

For the larger kinds of game, such as elephants and buffaloes, experienced sportsmen mostly prefer guns of immense Bore, carrying round bullets that weigh a quarter of a pound. The recoil is tremendous, and would injure the shoulder if the sportsman did not use a pad against which he rests the gun. The guns must be strong, because very large charges of powder are invariably used where great power of penetration is required. African sportsmen found this out experimentally long before the idea occurred to artillerists.

Sights.—The hind sight should be far from the eye, even though it be placed half-way down the barrel: else it becomes out of focus and indistinct, when the eye is firmly set on the object aimed at; this drawback is never compensated by the advantage of having the front and hind sights far asunder.

Ramrod.—The guns of servants and indeed those of their masters, should have thin soft-iron ramrods; the elasticity of these when slightly bent, will retain them in the ramrod-tubes; both ends of the ramrod must be forged broad.

Screw to secure the Cock.—In common guns, this screw is very liable to get loose, fall out and be lost; it is therefore desirable to have one or more spare screws.

Water-proof Cover should not be forgotten.

Rust, to prevent.—Paraffine and mercurial ointment are perhaps the two best things to keep rust off iron, in sea voyages or in boat-shooting. Before embarking for a voyage, it is convenient to enclose the guns in a leaden case, which, on arrival, can be melted up into bullets. It is remarkable how much better dirty guns withstand rust than clean ones.

Olive oil, to purify.—Put a piece of lead in the glass bottle that contains the oil, and expose to the sun; a quantity of cloudy matter will separate after a few days, then the refined oil may be decanted.

The small of the stock is the weakest part of a gun: it is constantly broken by falls in travel. Sir Samuel Baker justly recommends that "all guns made for sport in wild countries and rough riding, should have steel instead of iron from the Breech-socket, extending far back to within six inches of the shoulder plate; the trigger-guard should likewise be steel, and should be carried back to an equal distance with the above rib; the steel should be of extra thickness, and screwed through to the upper piece; thus the two being connected by screws above and below, no fall could break the stock."

Injuries to Guns, to repair.—Ramrod tubes often break off, and it is a very troublesome accident when they do so. I know of no contrivance to fasten them on again, except by using soft solder, the application of which will not in the least hurt the gun: ashes, at a dull red heat, must be heaped over the barrel to warm it sufficiently, before applying the solder. If the ramrod tubes have been lost, others made of tin may replace them.

The Sight of a Gun, if it falls out and is lost, can easily be replaced by a substitute. A groove must be cut with a file across the substance of the barrel, if the gun be a single one, or across the midrib, if double-barrelled; into this a piece of iron, ivory, bone, horn, or hard wood, with a projection carved in the middle for the sight, must be pushed, then the metal on either side must be battered down over it, with a hammer or stone, to keep it firm.

A broken Stock, however much it may be smashed, can be well mended by raw hide (see "Hides"). Blacksmith's work and carpentering are seldom sufficient for the purpose. It is within the power of a rough workman to make a gun-stock, but it is a work of great labour.

A Ramrod may be replaced by cutting a stick from a tree, straightening it in the fire, and then seasoning it. (See "Green Wood.")

Guns to hang up, to carry, and to clean.—Hanging Guns to a Wall.—Fix a loop of leather for the muzzle, and a strap and buckle for the stock, with a piece of sheepskin or canvas nailed so as to hang over it, as in fig. 1. A more complete way is to sew a long pocket with a flap to it, which is tied up on to a stick or bar, as in fig. 2: the gun has simply to be Lifted out and in. The pocket must be made baggy at the part which corresponds to the cocks of the gun.

[Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 As described in text].

Carrying Guns on a Journey.—"Look at the gun, but never let the gun look at you, or at your companions," is a golden rule; for among the chances of death to which a traveller is exposed, that of being shot by an attendant's gun going off accidentally, ranks high. Servants should carry their guns with the cock down on a piece of rag, that covers the cap: take it all in all, it is the best plan for them. A sportsman will find great convenience in having a third nick cut in the tumbler of his lock, so as to give an additional low half-cock, at which the cock just clears the nipple; it will prevent the cap from falling off or receiving a blow. I have long used this plan, and find no objections to it: many pistols are furnished with this contrivance. Careless gun-makers sometimes make this catch so low, that when the cock is lifted a little back from it, and let go, it strikes the cap by reason of the elasticity of its metal, and lets off the gun: the traveller should beware of this fault of workmanship.

[Sketch of gun as described].

As this book may fall into the hands of persons ignorant of the danger of carrying a gun with the cock down on the nipple (to which cause I find that three-fourths of gun accidents are owing, having once kept a list of those that were reported in the newspapers), I will remark that when the cock is down, a heavy blow on its back, nay, even the jar caused by the gun falling on the ground, will cause the cap to explode. Again if the cock catch against the dress, or against A twig, it is liable to be lifted, when, on being released, it will snap down upon the cap. When a gun is at half-cock, the first of these accidents obviously cannot occur; and, as to the second, if the cock be pulled back and let drop, it falls, not down upon the cap, but to half-cock again, except only in the case where the trigger is also pressed back. The objections to carrying a gun at half-cock are, that careless people occasionally leave it on full-cock without perceiving the difference, and that there is a probability of weakening the main-spring, if day after day it be kept on the strain.

Carrying Guns when Stalking Game.—In creeping after game, the gun is always troublesome; there is no better plan than pushing it as far as the arm can reach, then creeping up to it, and again pushing it forwards.

Carrying Guns on Horseback.—Allow me very strongly to recommend a trial of the following plan, even for a shooting-pony in Scotland. It is the invention of the Namaquas. I and all my party in South Africa used it for a year and a half, and many persons have adopted the plan in England since I first published a description of it. Sew a bag of canvas, leather, or hide, of such a size as to admit the butt of the gun pretty freely. The straps that support the bag, buckle through a ring in the pommel; the thongs by which the slope of the bag is adjusted, are fastened round the girth, below. The exact adjustments may not be hit upon, by an unpractised person, for some time; but, when they are once ascertained, the thongs need never be shifted. The gun is perfectly safe: it never comes below the armpit, even in taking a crop leap: it is pulled out in an instant by bringing the elbow forwards in front of the gun and then backwards, pressing it against the side; by this manner, the gun is thrown to the outside of the arm: then, lowering the hand, catch the gun as near the trigger-guard as you can, and lift it out of the bag: (it is a bungling way to take out the gun whilst its barrel lies between the arm and the body). Any sized gun can be carried in this fashion, and it offers no obstacle to mounting or dismounting.

I hear that some sportsmen, who were probably unacquainted with this method, have used a bag or pocket of stiff Leather attached to the side of the saddle, just behind the right leg; into this, when tired of carrying the gun, they push the butt. It is said to lie there securely and to give no trouble, the barrel passes forwards under the right arm, and the muzzle is in front of the rider.

[Drawing of horse, rider and gun as described above].

The French dragoons carry a gun in a way that is convenient for military purposes, because it does not interfere with the immense housings that cavalry soldiers require; but it is not so handy, it does not lie so freely as the above, nor is it as well suited to a traveller or a sportsman. The gun is placed butt downwards, as in the Namaqua method, and leans backwards in the same way; but the under side of the gun, instead of being backwards, or towards the horse's tail, Is towards his head. The butt lies in a shallow bucket, secured by two straps fixed to the front of the saddle; another strap, leading from the pommel, and passing over the right thigh of the rider, is hitched round the barrel of the gun, and has to be unbuckled and cast off when the gun is taken out.

All ways of carrying the gun with its muzzle downwards, are very objectionable; since the jolting tends to dislodge the charge; if it be considerably dislodged, the gun will probably burst, on being fired. Also, a very little shaking, when the muzzle is downwards, will shake the powder out of the nipple, and therefore, a gun, so carried, will constantly miss fire.

At Night, to dispose of Guns.—A gun is a very awkward thing to dispose of at night. It has occurred more than once that a native servant has crept up, drawn away the gun of his sleeping master, and shot him dead. The following appears to me an excellent plan:—"When getting sleepy, you return your rifle between your legs, roll over, and go to sleep. Some people may think this is a queer place for a rifle; but, on the contrary, it is the position of all others where utility and comfort are most combined.

[Sketch of man and gun as described].

The butt rests on the arm, and serves as a pillow for the head; the muzzle points between the knees, and the arms encircle the lock and breech, so that you have a smooth pillow, and are always prepared to start Up armed at a moment's notice." (Parkyns' 'Abyssinia.') The longer the gun, the more secure is the sleeper from accident. The sketch is not quite accurate, for, in practice, the weight of the gun is never allowed to rest so entirely on the arm, as it is here represented: if it did so, the arm would soon be numbed. The gun-stock may be a little bolstered up if desired, to avoid any troublesome pressure on the arm.

Cleaning Guns.—A bit of rag does as well as tow, and can be used over and over again. A top furnished with a sponge, to screw to the cleaning rod, is convenient. "A leaded barrel must be cleaned with fine sand." (Hawker.) Quicksilver, if it be at hand, will dissolve out the lead at once.



GUN-FITTINGS AND AMMUNITION.

Powder-flask.—The flask that is carried in the pocket may be small, if roomy; a large one, in reserve, being kept in a bag, at the front of the saddle.

To reduce bulges in a metal powder-flask, fill it up with Indian corn, or dry peas, of any other sort of hard grain; then pour water into it, and screw down the lid tightly. The grain will swell, at first slowly and then very rapidly, and the flask will resume its former dimensions, or burst if it is not watched. Peas do not begin to swell for a couple of hours or more.

Powder-horn, to make.—Saw off the required length from an ox's horn, flatten it somewhat by heat (see "Horn"), fit a wooden bottom into it, caulk it well, and sew raw hide round the edge to keep all tight. The mouth must be secured by a plug, which may be hollowed to make a charger. Pieces of cane of large diameter, and old gunpowder canisters, sewn up in hide, make useful powder-flasks.

Percussion Caps.—Caps may be carried very conveniently by means of a ring, with two dozen nipple-shaped beads, made of some metal, strung upon it; each bead being intended to be covered by a percussion-cap. The beads are cleft down the middle, which gives them a slight springiness, that more effectually secures the caps that are placed upon them: the ring is tied by a thong to the belt or button-hole. It is very Difficult, without this contrivance, to keep caps free from sand, crumbs, and dirt, yet always at hand when required. I can confidently recommend it, though as it is old-fashioned and not well suited for sportsmen in England, it is rarely to be met with. Spring cap holders are, I am sure, too delicate for rough travel.

To protect Caps from the Rain.—Before stalking, or watching at night in rainy weather, wax or grease the edge of the cap as it rests on the nipple: it will thus become proof against water and damp air. Some persons carry a piece of grease with them, when shooting in wet weather, and with it they smear the top of the nipple after each loading, before putting on the fresh cap. It is said that the grease does not prevent the full action of the cap upon the powder. A sportsman has recommended to me a couple of well-marked caps, into the heads of which small wads of cork have been fitted; he uses them for loaded guns that are to be laid by for some hours or days. A broad leaf wrapped loosely round the lock of a gun, will protect it during a heavy shower.

Substitute for Caps.—When the revolution in Spain in 1854 began, "there was a great want of percussion caps; this the insurgents supplied by cutting off the heads of lucifer-matches and sticking them into the nipples. The plan was found to answer perfectly." (Times, July 31.)

Gun-pricker.—I am indebted for the following plan, both for clearing the touchhole, and also for the rather awkward operation of pricking down fresh gunpowder into it, to an old sportsman in the Orkney Island of Sanday. He takes a quill, and cuts off a broad ring from the large end of it; this is pushed over the small end of the quill, and lies securely there. Next, he cuts a wooden plug to fit the quill; into the plug, the pricker is fixed.

[Sketch of gun-pricker as described].

The whole affair goes safely in the pocket; the quill acting as a sheath to the sharp pricker. Now, when powder has to be pricked down the nipple, the "broad ring" is slipped off the quill and put on the nipple, which it fits; powder is poured into it, and the required operation is easily completed. This little contrivance, which is so simple and Light, lasts for months, and is perfectly effective. I have tried metal holders, but I much prefer the simple quill, on account of its elasticity and lightness. A little binding with waxed thread, may be put on, as shown in the sketch, to prevent the quill from splitting.

Wadding.—The bush affords few materials from which wadding can be made; some birds' nests are excellent for the purpose. I am told that a dry hide will not serve as materials for wads.

Flints.—According to Ure's Dictionary, the best stones to choose for making gun-flints are those that are not irregular in shape; they should have, when broken, a greasy lustre, and be particularly smooth and fine-grained; the colour is of no importance, but it should be uniform in the same lump; and the more transparent the stones the better. Gun-flints are made with a hammer, and a chisel of steel that is not hardened. The stone is chipped by the hammer alone into pieces of the required thickness, which are fashioned by being laid upon the fixed chisel, and hammered against it. It takes nearly a minute for a practised workman to make one gun-flint.

Gunpowder.—To carry Gunpowder.—Wrap it up in flannel or leather, not in paper, cotton, or linen; because these will catch fire, or smoulder like tinder, whilst the former will do neither the one nor the other. Gunpowder carried in a goat-skin bag, travels very safely. Mr. Gregory carried his in the middle of his flour; each flour-bag (see p. 69), during his North Australian expedition, had a tin of gunpowder in the middle of it.

To make Gunpowder.—It is difficult to make good gunpowder, but there is no skill required in making powder that will shoot and kill. Many of the negroes of Africa, make it for themselves—burning the charcoal, gathering saltpetre from salt-pans, and buying the sulphur from trading caravans: they grind the materials on a stone. In Chinese Tartary and Thibet, every peasant manufactures it for himself.

To make 8 lbs. of gunpowder, take 1 lb. of charcoal, 1 lb. of sulphur, and 6 lbs. of saltpetre. These proportions should be followed as accurately as possible. Each of the three materials must be pounded into powder separately, and then all mixed together most thoroughly. The mixture must have a little water added to it, Enough to make it bind into a stiff paste (about one-tenth part, by measure, of water is sufficient; that is to say, one cupful of water to ten cupfuls of the mixed powder). The paste must be well kneaded together, with one stone on another, just as travellers usually make meal or grind coffee. It should then be wrapped up to a piece of canvas, or a skin, and pressed, with as heavy a pressure as can be obtained, to condense it. Next, the cake is squeezed and worked against a sieve made of parchment, in which the holes have been burnt with a red-hot wire, and through which the cake is squeezed in grains. These grains are now put into a box, which is well shaken about, and in this way the grains run each other smooth. The fine dust that is then found mixed with the grains, must be winnowed away; lastly the grains are dried.

Recapitulation.—1. Pound the ingredients separately. @. Mix them. 3. Add a little water, and knead the mass. 4. Press it. 5. Rub the mass through a sieve. 6. Shake up the grains in a box. 7. Get rid of the dust. 8. Dry the grains.

The ingredients should be used as pure as they can be obtained. For making a few charges of coarse powder, the sieve may be dispensed with: in this case, roll the dough into long pieces of the thickness of a pin; lay several of these side by side, and mince the whole into small grains; dust with powder, to prevent their sticking together: and then proceed as already described.

To procure good Charcoal.—Light woods that give a porous charcoal, are the best;—as poplar, alder, lime, horse-chestnut, willow, hazel-nut, and elder. It should be made with the greatest care, and used as soon as possible afterwards: it is the most important ingredient in gunpowder.

Sulphur.—The lumps must be melted over a gentle fire; the pot should then be put in a heap of hot sand, to give the impurities time to settle, before it cools into a mass. When this has taken place, the bottom part must be broken off and put aside as unfit for making gunpowder, and the top part alone used. Flower of sulphur is quite pure.

Saltpetre.—Dissolve the saltpetre that you wish to purify, in an equal measure of boiling water; a cupful of one to a cupful of the other. Strain this solution, and, letting it cool gradually, somewhat less than three-fourths of the nitre will separate in regular crystals. Saltpetre exists in the ashes of many plants, of which tobacco is one; it is also found copiously on the ground in many places, in saltpans, or simply as an effloresence. Rubbish, such as old mud huts, and mortar, generally abounds with it. (It is made by the action of the air on the potash contained in the earths.) The taste, which is that of gunpowder, is the best test of its presence. To extract it, pour hot water on the mass, then evaporate and purify, as mentioned above.

Rocket Composition consists of gunpowder 16 parts, by Weight; charcoal, 3 parts. Or, in other words, of nitre, 16 parts; charcoal 7 parts; sulphur, 4 parts. It must not be forgotten that when rockets are charged with the composition, a hollow tube must be left down their middle.

Blue Fire.—4 parts gunpowder meal; 2 parts nitre, 3 parts sulphur; 3 parts zinc.

Bengal Fire.—7 parts nitre; 2 parts sulphur; 1 part antimony.

Bullets—Sportsmen, fresh from England, and acknowledged as good shots at home, begin by shooting vilely with balls at large game. They must not be discouraged at what is a general rule, but be satisfied that they will soon do themselves justice.

Alloy.—Common bullets of lead, whether round or conical, are far inferior to those of hard alloy; for the latter penetrate much more deeply, and break bones, instead of flattening against them. A mixture of very little tin, or pewter (which is lead and tin), with lead, hardens it: we read of sportsmen melting up their spoons and dishes for this purpose. A little quicksilver has the same effect. Sir Samuel Baker, who is one of the most experienced sportsmen both in Ceylon and in Africa, latterly used a mixture of nine-tenths lead and one-tenth quicksilver for his bullets. He says, "This is superior to all [other] mixtures for that purpose, as it combines hardness with extra weight; the lead must be melted in a pot by itself to a red heat, and the proportion of quicksilver must be added a ladleful at a time, and stirred quickly with a piece of iron just in sufficient quantity to make three or four bullets. If the quicksilver is subjected to red heat in the large leadpot, it will evaporate." Proper alloy, or spelter, had best be ordered at a gun-maker's shop, and taken from England instead of lead: different alloys of spelter vary considerably in their degree of hardness, and therefore more than one specimen should be tried.

Shape of Bullets.—Round iron bullets are worthless, except at very close quarters, on account of the lightness of the metal: for the resistance of the air checks their force extremely. Whether elongated iron bullets would succeed, remains to be Tried. Some savages—as, for instance, those of Timor—when in want of bullets, use stones two or three inches long. Some good sportsmen insist on the advantage, for shooting at very close quarters, of cleaving a conical bullet nearly down to its base, into four parts; these partly separate, and make a fearful wound. I suppose that the bullet leaves the gun with the same force as if it were entire; and that it traverses too short a distance for the altered form to tell seriously upon the speed: when it strikes, it acts like chain-shot.

Bullets, to carry.—Bullets should be carried sewn up in their patches, for the convenience of loading, and they should not fit too tight: a few may be carried bare, for the sake of rapid loading.

Recovering Bullets.—When ammunition is scarce, make a practice of recovering the bullets that may have been shot into a beast; if they are of spelter, they will be found to have been very little knocked out of shape, and may often be used again without recasting.

Shot and Slugs.—Travellers frequently omit to take enough shot, which is a great mistake, as birds are always to be found, while large game is uncertain: besides this, shot gives amusement; and ducks, quails, and partridges are much better eating than antelopes and buffaloes. It must be borne in mind, that a rifle will carry shot quite well enough, on an emergency. Probably No. 7 is the most convenient size for shot, as the birds are likely to be tame; and also because a traveller can often fire into a covey or dense flight of birds—and the more pellets, the more execution. If birds are to be killed for stuffing, dust-shot will also be wanted; otherwise, it is undoubtedly better to take only one size of shot.

Shot is made in manufactories, as follows:—Arsenic is added to the lead, in the proportion of from 3 lbs. to 8 lbs. of arsenic to 1000 lbs. of lead. The melted lead is poured through cullenders drilled with very fine holes, and drops many feet down, into a tub of water; 100 feet fall is necessary for manufactories in which No. 4 shot is made; 150, for larger sorts. If the shot turns out to be lens-shaped, there has been too much arsenic; if hollow, flattened, or tailed, there has been too little. Pewter or tin is bad, as it makes tailed shot. The Shot are sorted by sieves; bad shot are weeded out, by letting the shot roll over a slightly-inclined board, then the sho that are not quite round roll off to the side. Lastly, the shot is smoothed by being shaken up in a barrel with a little black-lead.

Slugs are wanted both for night-shooting and also in case of a hostile attack. They can be made by running melted lead into reeds, and chopping the reeds into short length; or by casting the lead in tubes made by rolling paper round a smooth stick: whether reeds or paper be used, they should be planted in the ground before the lead is poured in. The temperature of the lead is regulated by taking care that a small quantity of it remains unmelted in the ladle, at the moment of pouring out: if it be too hot it will burn the paper. (See "Lead.")



HINTS ON SHOOTING.

When lying down.—Loading.—Put in the powder as you best can, and ram the bullet home, lying flat on your back, with the barrel of the gun athwart your breast. It is easy to load in this way with cartridges.

On Horseback.—Loading.—Empty the charge of powder from the flask into the left hand, and pour it down the gun; then take a bullet, wet out of your mouth, and drop it into the barrel, using no ramrod; the wet will cake the bullet pretty firmly in its right place.

Firing.—"In firing, do not bring the gun to your shoulder; but present it across the pommel of the saddle, calculating the angle with your eye, and steadying yourself momentarily by standing in the stirrups, as you take aim." (Palliser.) In each bound of the horse, the moment when his fore legs strike the ground is one of comparative steadiness, and is therefore the proper instant for pulling the trigger.

On Water.—Boat-shooting.—A landing-net should be taken in the boat, as Colonel Hawker well advises, to pick up the dead birds as they float on the water, while the boat passes quickly by them.

Shooting over Water.—When shooting from a river-bank without boat or dog, take a long light string with a stick tied to one end of it, the other being held in the hand: by throwing The stick beyond the floating bird, it can gradually be drawn in. The stick should be 1 1/2 or 2 feet long, 2 inches in diameter, and notched at either end, and attached to the hand-line by a couple of strings, each 6 feet long, tied round either notch. Thus, the hand-line terminates in a triangle (see the figure I have given, of a rude Stirrup), the two sides of which are of string, with the stick for a base. A stout stick of this kind can be thrown to a great distance; either it may be "heaved," as a sailor's Deep-sea Lead, or it may be whirled round the head, and then let fly.

Night-shooting.—Tie a band of white paper round the muzzle of the gun, behind the sight. Mr. Andersson, who has had very great experience, ties the paper, not round the smooth barrel, but over the sight and all; and, if the sight does not happen to be a large one, he ties a piece of thick string round the barrel, or uses other similar contrivance, to tilt up the fore end of the paper. By this means, the paper is not entirely lost sight of at the moment when the aim is being taken. Mr. Andersson also pinches the paper into a ridge along the middle of the gun, to ensure a more defined foresight.

Nocturnal Animals.—There are a large number of night-feeding animals, upon whose flesh a traveller might easily support himself, but of whose existence he would have few indications by daylight observation only. The following remarks of Professor Owen, in respect to Australia are very suggestive:—"All the marsupial animals—and it is one of their curious peculiarities—are nocturnal. Even the kangaroo, which is the least so, is scarcely ever seen feeding out on the plains in broad daylight: it prefers the early morning dawn, or the short twilight; and, above all, the bright moonlight nights. With regard to most of the other Australian forms of marsupial animals, they are most strictly nocturnal; so that, if a traveller were not aware of that peculiarity, he might fancy himself traversing a country destitute of the mammalian grade of animal life. If, however, after a weary day's journey, he could be awakened, and were to look out about the moonlight glade or scrub, or if he were to set traps by night, he would probably be surprised to find how great a number of interesting forms of mammalian animals were to Be met with, in places where there was not the slightest appearance of them in the daytime."

Battues.—In Sweden, where hundreds of people are marshalled, each man has a number, and the number is chalked upon his hat.

Scarecrows.—A string with feathers tied to it at intervals, like the tail of a boy's kite, will scare most animals of the deer tribe, by their fluttering; and, in want of a sufficient force of men, passes may be closed by this contrivance. The Swedes use "lappar," viz. Pieces of canvas, of half the height of a man, painted in glaring colours and left to flutter from a line.

Mr. Lloyd tells us of a peasant who, when walking without a gun, saw a glutton up in a tree. He at once took off his hat and coat and rigged out a scarecrow, the counterpart of himself, which he fixed close by, for the purpose of frightening the beast from coming down; he then went leisurely home, to fetch his gun: this notable expedient succeeded perfectly.

Stalking-horses.—Artificial.—A stalking-horse, or cow, is made by cutting out a piece of strong canvas into the shape of the animal, and painting it properly. Loops are sewn in different places, through which sticks are passed, to stretch the curves into shape: a stake, planted in the ground serves as a buttress to support the apparatus: at a proper height, there is a loophole to fire through. It packs up into a roll of canvas and a bundle of five or six sticks.

[Sketch of stalking-horse as described below].

Bushes are used much in the same way. Colonel Hawker made a contrivance upon wheels which he pushed before him. The Esquimaux shoot seals by pushing a white screen before them over the ice, on a sledge. See figure. - (Kane.)

Real.—Both horses and oxen can be trained to shield a sportsman: they are said to enter into the spirit of the Thing; and to show wonderful craft, walking round and round the object in narrowing circles, and stopping to graze unconcernedly, on witnessing the least sign of alarm. Oxen are taught to obey a touch on the horn: the common but cruel way of training them is to hammer and batter the horns for hours together, and on many days successively: they then become inflamed at the root and are highly sensitive.

Pan-hunting (used at salt-licks).—"Pan-hunting is a method of hunting deer at night. An iron pan attached to a long stick, serving as a handle, is carried in the left hand over the left shoulder; near where the hand grasps the handle, in a small projecting stick, forming a fork on which to rest the rifle, when firing. The pan is filled with burning pine-knots, which, being saturated with turpentine, shed a brilliant and constant light all around; shining into the eyes of any deer that may come in that direction, and making them look like two balls of fire. The effect is most curious to those unaccumstomed to it. The distance between the eyes of the deer as he approaches, appears gradually to increase, reminding one of the lamps of a travelling carriage." (Palliser.)

The rush of an enraged Animal is far more easily avoided than is usually supposed. The way the Spanish bull-fighters play with the bull, is well known: any man can avoid a mere headlong charge. Even the speed of a racer, which is undeniably far greater than any wild quadruped, does not exceed 30 miles an hour or four times the speed of a man. The speed of an ordinary horse is not more than 24 miles an hour: now even the fastest wild beast is unable to catch an ordinary horse, except by crawling unobserved close to his side, and springing upon him; therefore I am convinced that the rush of no wild animal exceeds 24 miles an hour, or three times the speed of a man. (See Measurements of the rate of an animal's gallop, p. 37.) It is perfectly easy for a person who is cool, to avoid an animal, by dodging to one side or other of a bush. Few animals turn, if the rush be unsuccessful. The buffalo is an exception; he regularly hunts a man, and is therefore peculiarly dangerous. Unthinking persons talk of the fearful rapidity of a lion or tiger's spring. It is not rapid at all: it is a slow movement, as must be evident from The following consideration. No wild animal can leap ten yards, and they all make a high trajectory in their leaps. Now, think of the speed of a ball thrown, or rather pitched, with just sufficient force to be caught by a person ten yards off: it is a mere nothing. The catcher can play with it as he likes; he has even time to turn after it, if thrown wide. But the speed of a springing animal is undeniably the same as that of a ball, thrown so as to make a flight of equal length and height in the air. The corollary to all this is, that, if charged, you must keep cool and watchful, and your chance of escape is far greater than non-sportsmen would imagine. The blow of the free paw is far swifter than the bound.

Dogs kept at bay.—A correspondent assures me that "a dog flying at a man may be successfully repelled by means of a stout stick held horizontally, a hand at each end, and used to thrust the dog backwards over, by meeting him across the throat or breast. If followed by a blow on the nose, as the brute is falling, the result will be sooner attained."

A watch-dog usually desists from flying at a stranger when he seats himself quietly on the ground, like Ulysses. The dog then contents himself with barking and keeping guard until his master arrives.

Hiding Game.—In hiding game from birds of prey, brush it over, and they will seldom find it out; birds cannot smell well, but they have keen eyes. The meat should be hung from an overhanging bough; then, if the birds find it out, there will be no place for them to stand on and tear it. Leaving a handkerchief or a short to flutter from a tree, will scare animals of prey for a short time. (See "Scarecrows."_

Tying up your Horse.—You may tie your horse, on a bare plain, to the horns of an animal that you have shot, while you are skinning him, but it is better to hobble the horse with a stirrup-leather. (See "Shooting-horse.")

Division of Game.—Some rules are necessary in these matters, to avoid disputes, especially between whites and natives; and therefore the custom of the country must be attended to. But it is a very general and convenient rule (though, like all fixed rules, often unfair) that the animal should belong to the Man who first wounded him, however slight the wound might have been; but that he or they who actually killed the animal, should have a right to a slice of the meat: it must however, be understood, that the man who gave the first wound should not thenceforward withdraw from the chase; if he does so, his claim is lost. In America the skin belongs to the first shot, the carcase is divided equally among the whole party. Whaling crews are bound by similar customs, in which nice distinctions are made, and which have all the force of laws.

Duck-shooting.—Wooden ducks, ballasted with lead, and painted, may be used at night as decoy-ducks; or the skins of birds already shot, may be stuffed and employed for the same purpose. They should be anchored in the water, or made fast to a frame attached to the shooting-punt, and dressed with sedge. It is convenient to sink a large barrel into the flat marsh or mud, as a dry place to stand or sit in, when waiting for the birds to come. A lady suggests to me, that if the sportsman took a bottle of hot water to put under his feet, it would be a great comfort to him, and in this I quite agree; I would take a keg of hot water, when about it. If real ducks be used as decoy-birds, the males should be tied in one place and the females in another, to induce them to quack. An artificial island may be made to attract ducks, when there is no real one.

Crocodile-shooting.—Mr. Gilby says, speaking of Egypt, "I killed several crocodiles by digging pits on the sand-islands and sleeping a part of the night in them; a dry shred of palm-branch, the colour of the sand, round the hole, formed a screen to put the gun through. Their flesh was most excellent eating—half-way between meat and fish: I had it several times. The difficulty of shooting them was, that the falcons and spurwing-plovers would hover round the pit, when the crocodiles invariably took to the water. Their sight and hearing were good, but their scent indifferent. I generally got a shot or two at daybreak after sleeping in the pit."

Tracks.—When the neighbourhood of a drinking-place is trodden down with tracks, "describe a circle a little distance From it, to ascertain if it be much frequented. This is the manner in which spoor should at all times be sought for." (Cumming's 'Life in South Africa.') To know if a burrow be tenanted, go to work on the same principle; but, if the ground be hard, sprinkle sand over it, in order to show the tracks more clearly. It is related in the Apocrypha, that the prophet Daniel did this, when he wished to learn who it really was who every night consumed the meat which was placed before the idol of Bel, and which the idol itself was supposed to eat: he thus discovered that the priests and their families had a secret door by which they entered the temple; and convinced the king of the matter, by showing him their footprints.

Carrying Game.—To carry small Game, as Fallow Deer.—Make a long slit with your knife between the back sinew and the bone of both of the hind-legs. Cut a thick pole of wood and a stout wooden skewer 8 inches long. Now thrust the right fore-leg through the slit in the left hind one, and then the left fore-leg through the slit in the right hind one, and holding these firmly in their places, push the skewer right through the left fore-leg, so as to peg it from drawing back. Lastly run the pole between the animal's legs and its body, and let two men carry it on their shoulders, one at each end of the pole; or, if a beast of burden be at hand, the carcase is in a very convenient shape for being packed. In animals whose back sinew is not very prominent, it is best to cross the legs as above, and to lash them together. Always take the bowels out of game, before carrying it; it is so much weight saved. "I rode out accompanied by an after-rider, and shot two springboks, which we bore to camp secured on our horses behind our saddles, by passing the buckles of the girths on each side through the fore and hind legs of the antelopes, having first performed an incision between the bone and the sinews with the couteau de chasse, according to colonial usage." (Cumming's 'Life in South Africa.') "After he had skinned and gutted the animal, he cut away the flesh from the bones, in one piece, without separating the limbs, so as to leave suspended from the tree merely the skeleton of the deer. This, it appeared, was the Turkish fashion in use upon long Journeys, in order to relieve travellers from the useless burden of bones." (Huc's 'Tartary.') See also the section on "Heavy weights, to raise and carry," especially Mr. Wyndham's plan.

To float carcases of Game across a river.—Sir S. Baker recommends stripping off the skin of the animal, as though it were intended to make a water-skin of it: putting a stone up the neck end of the skin; thus forming a water-tight sack, open at one end only. All the flesh is now to be cut off the bones, and packed into the sack; which is then to be inflated, and secured by tying up the open end. The skin of a large antelope thus inflated, will not only float the whole of the flesh, but will also support several swimmers.

"To carry Ivory on pack-animals, the North African traders use nets, slinging two large teeth on each side of an ass. Small teeth are wrapped up in skins and secured with rope." (Mungo Park.)

Setting a gun as a spring-gun.—General Remarks.—The string that goes across the pathway should be dark coloured, and so fine that, if the beast struggles against it, it should break rather than cause injury to the gun. I must however, add, that in the numerous cases in which I have witnessed or heard of guns being set with success, for large beasts of prey, I have never known of injury occurring to the gun. The height of the muzzle should be properly arranged with regard to the height of the expected animal; thus, the heart of a hyena is the height of a man's knee above the ground; that of a lion, is a span higher. The string should not be tight, but hang in a bow, or the animal will cause the gun to go off on first touching the string, and will only receive a flesh-wound across the front of his chest.

1st Method.—The annexed sketch (p. 258) explains the method I have described in previous editions of this book. The stock is firmly lashed to a tree, and the muzzle to a stake planted in the ground. A "lever-stick," 8 inches long, is bound across the grip of the gun so as to stand upright; but it is not bound so tightly as to prevent a slight degree of movement. The bottom of the "lever-stick" is tied to the trigger, and the top of it to a long, fine, dark-coloured string, which is passed through the empty ramrod tubes, and is fixed to a tree on the other side of the pathway. It is evident that when a beast breasts this string, the trigger of the gun will be pulled.

[Sketch of man setting up gun to be fired as above].

1nd Method.—I have, however, been subsequently informed of a better plan of adapting the "lever-stick." It is shown in the accompanying diagram (below). The fault of the previous plan, is the trouble of tying the string to the trigger; since the curvature is usually such as to make it a matter of some painstaking to fix it securely. A, B, C, is the "lever-stick." Notch it deeply at A, where it is to receive the trigger; notch it also at B, half an inch from A; and at C, 5 inches or so from B. In lashing B to the grip of the stock at D, the firmer you make the lashing, the better. If D admit of any yielding movement, on C being pulled, the gun will not go off, either readily or surely; as will easily be seen, on making experiment.

[Sketch of rifle with stick rigged as above].

3rd Method.—I am indebted to Captain J. Meaden for the following account of the plan used in Ceylon for setting a spring gun for leopards:—

"Remove the sear, or tie up the trigger. Load the gun, and secure it at the proper height from the ground. Opposite the muzzle of the gun, or at such distance to the right, or left, as may be required, fasted the end of a black string, or line made of horsehair or fibre, and pass it across the path to the gun. Fasten the other end to a stake, long enough to stand higher than the hammer. Stick the end of the stake slightly in the ground, and let it rest upright against the lock projection, the black line being fastened nearly at that height. Pass round the small of the stock a loop of single or double string. Take a piece of stick 6 or 8 inches long, pass through the loop, and twist tourniquet fashion until the loop is reduced to the required length. Raise the hammer carefully, and pass the short end of the lever-stick, from the inner to the outer side, over the comb, and let the long end of the lever rest against the stake: the pressure of the hammer will keep the lever steady against the stake. To prevent the lower end of the stake flying out, from the pressure of the lever on the upper part, place a log or stone against the foot.

"An animal pushing against the black string, draws the upper end of the stake towards the muzzle, until the lever is disengaged and releases the hammer.

"In laying the long arm of the lever against the stake sufficient play must be allowed for the contraction of the black string, when wet by dew or rain.

"If a double gun is set, two stakes and two levers will be required. The stakes to be connected above and below the gun, by cross sticks. The levers must be passed round the combs the opposite way, to allow of the long arms pressing outwards from the gun, and enable the levers to disengage without entangling.

"The carcase or live bait must be hedged round, and means adopted to guide the leopard across the string, by running out a short hedge on one side. In this case the black line to be set taut, and some 4 inches from the line of fire. The breast than catches the string, and the push releases the hammer when the muzzle is in line with the chest.

"On this principle, two or more guns can be set, slightly varying in elevation, to allow of one barrel at least being effective."

Bow and Arrow set for Beasts.—The Chinese have some equivalent contrivance with bows and arrows. M. Huc tells us that a simply constructed machine is sold in the shops, by which, when sprung, a number of poisoned arrows are fired off in succession. These machines are planted in caves of sepulture, to guard them from pillage. They use spring-guns, and used to have spring-bows in Sweden, and in many other countries.

Knives.—Hunting-knife.—A great hunting-knife is a useless encumbrance: no old sportsman or traveller cares to encumber himself with one; but a butcher's knife, carried in a sheath, is excellent, both from its efficient shape, the soft quality of The steel, its lightness, and the strong way in which the blade is set in the haft.

Pocket-knife.—If a traveller wants a pocket-knife full of all kinds of tools, he had best order a very light one of 2 3/4 inches long, in a tortoise-shell handle, without the usual turnscrew at the end. It should have a light "picker" to shut over its back; this will act as a strike-light, and a file also, if its under surface be properly roughened. Underneath the picker, there should be a small triangular borer, for making holes in leather, and a gimlet. The front of the knife should contain a long, narrow pen-blade of soft steel; a cobbler's awl, slightly bent; and a packing-needle with a large eye, to push thongs and twine through holes in leather. Between the tortoise-shell part of the handle and the metal frame of the knife, should be a space to contain three flat thin pieces of steel, turning on the same pivot. The ends of these are to be ground to form turnscrews of brass instruments: when this excellent contrivance is used, it must be opened out like the letter T, the foot of which represents the turnscrew in use and the horizontal part represents the other two turnscrews, which serve as the handle. It may be thought advisable to add a button-hook, a corkscrew, and a large blade; but that is not my recommendation, because it increases the size of the knife and makes it heavy; now a heavy knife is apt to be laid by, and not to be at hand when wanted, while a light knife is a constant pocket companion.

Sheath Knives, to carry.—They are easily carried by half-naked, pocketless savages, by attaching the sheaths to a leather-loop, through which the left forearm and elbow are to be passed. A swimmer can easily carry a knife in this way; otherwise he holds it between his teeth.

Substitutes for Knives.—Steel is no doubt vastly better than iron, but it is not essential for the ordinary purposes of life; indeed, most ancient civilized nations had nothing better than iron. Any bit of good iron may be heated as hot as the camp-fire admits; hammered flat, lashed into a handle, and sharpened on a stone. A fragment of flint or obsidian may be made fast to a handle, to be used as a carpenter cuts paper With a chisel; namely, by holding it dagger-fashion, and drawing it over the skin or flesh which he wishes to cut. Shells are sometimes employed as substitutes for knives, also thin strips of bamboo, the sharp edges of which cut meat easily. (See "Sharpening Tools.")

Night-glass.—Opera-glasses are invaluable as night-glasses, for, by their aid, the sight of man is raised nearly to a par with that of night-roving animals; therefore, a sportsman would find them of great service when watching for game at night. A small and inexpensive glass is as useful for this purpose as a large one; but there is a considerable difference between the clearness of different opera-glasses.



OTHER MEANS OF CAPTURING GAME.

General Remarks.—A trapper will never succeed, unless he thoroughly enters into the habits of life and mind of wild animals. He must ever bear in mind how suspicious they are; how quickly their eye is caught by unusual traces; and, lastly, how strong and enduring a taint is left by the human touch. Our own senses do not make us aware of what it is disagreeable enough to acknowledge, that the whole species of man yields a powerful and wide-spreading emanation, that is utterly disgusting and repulsive to every animal in its wild state. It requires some experience to realise this fact: a man must frequently have watched the heads of a herd of far distant animals, tossed up in alarm the moment that they catch his wind; he must have observed the tracks of animals—how, when they crossed his path of the preceding day, the beast that made the tracks has stopped, scrutinised, and shunned it—before he can believe what a Yahoo he is among the brute creation. No cleanliness of the individual seems to diminish this remarkable odour: indeed, the more civilised the man, the more subtle does it appear to be; the touch of a game-keeper scares less than that of the master, and the touch of a negro or bushman less than that of a traveller from Europe.

If a novice thinks he will trap successfully by such artless endeavours as putting a bait on the plate of a trap that is covered over with moss, or by digging a pitfall in the middle of a wild beast's track, he is utterly mistaken. The bait Should be thrown on the ground, and the trap placed on the way to it; then the animal's mind, being fixed on the meat, takes less heed of the footpath. Or a pitfall should be made near the main path; this being subsequently stopped by boughs, causes the animal to walk in the bushes, and to tumble into the covered hole. The slightest thing diverts an animal's step: watch a wild beast's path across a forest —little twigs and tufts of grass will be seen to have changed its course, and caused it to curve. It is in trifles of this sort that the trapper should look for auxiliaries. After setting traps, Mr. St. John recommends the use of a small branch of a tree; first, to smooth the ground, and then, having dipped it in water, to sprinkle the place: this entirely obliterates all foot-marks.

Springes.—General Remarks.—Harden the wood of which the mechanism has to be made, by means of fire; either baking it in hot sand or ashes, or otherwise applying heat to a degree just short of charring its surface. The mechanism will then retain the sharpness of its edges under a continuance of pressure, and during many hours of wet weather. The slighter the strain on the springe, the more delicately can its mechanism be set.

Nooses.—Catgut (which see) makes better nooses than string, because it is stiff enough to keep in shape when set: brass wife that has been heated red-hot, is excellent; for it has no tendency whatever to twist, and yet is perfectly pliable. Fish-hooks are sometimes attached to springes; sometimes a tree is bent down and a strong cord is used for the noose, by which large animals are strangled up in the air, as leopards are in Abyssinia. A noose may be set in any place where there is a run; it can be kept spread out, by thin rushes or twigs set crosswise in it. If the animal it is set for can gnaw, a heavy stone should be loosely propped up, which the animal in its struggles may set free, and by the weight of which it may be hung up and strangled. It is a very convenient plan for a traveller who has not time to look for runs, to make little hedges across a creek, or at right angles to a clump of trees, and to set his snares in gaps left in these artificial hedges. On the same principle, artificial islands of piles and faggots Are commonly made in lakes that are destitute of any real ones, in order that they may become a resort of wild-fowl.

Javelins.—Heavy poisoned javelins, hung over elephant and hippopotamus paths, and dropped on a catch being touched, after the manner of a springe, are used generally in Africa. They sometimes consist of a "sharp little assegai, or spike, most thoroughly poisoned, and stuck firmly into the end of a heavy block of thornwood, about four feet long and five inches in diameter. This formidable affair is suspended over the centre of a sea-cow path, at about thirty feet from the ground, by a bark cord, which passes over a high branch of a tree, and thence, by a peg, on one side of a path beneath." (Gordon Cumming.)

Trigger.—Where a trigger has to release a strong spring, an arrangement on the principle of a figure of 4 trap is, I believe, the most delicate; the standard may be a branch or the stock of a tree; and the other pieces should be hardened by fire.

Pitfalls.—Very small pitfalls, with sharpened stakes, planted inside them, that have been baked hard by the fire and well poisoned, are easily to be set, but they are very dangerous to man and beast. In preparing a pitfall for animals of prey, it is usual to ascertain whether they are deep enough, by putting in a large dog; if he cannot get out, it is very unlikely that any wild beast can. (See "Trous de loup," p. 312.)

Pitfalls are often dug in great numbers, near frequented watering-places, to which numerous intersecting paths lead: by stopping up particular paths, the pitfalls can be brought separately into use; therefore, those pitfalls need never be employed in which animals have been freshly killed, and where the smell of blood would scare the game. It is difficult to prevent the covers of pitfalls becoming hollow: the only way is to build the roofs in somewhat of an arch, so as to allow for subsidence. If a herd of animals be driven over pitfalls, some are sure to be pushed in, as the crush makes it impossible for the beasts, however wary, to pick their way.

Uganda Thorn-wreath.—Captain Grant found a very ingenious contrivance in use in Uganda, in Africa. Two small Stout hoops of equal diameter, made of wood fully an inch in thickness, were lashed one above the other; long acacia thorns were interposed, forming the spokes of a wheel of which the hoops formed the rim. The bases of the thorns were nipped between the hoops; and their points radiated towards the centre. A great many thorns were used, so that the appearance was that of a wheel without a nave, whose spokes were so close together that they touched each other, and, as thorns taper from base to point, the spokes touched one another along their whole length, from circumference to centre. This apparatus is always made with great neatness. It is laid over a hole 18 inches deep, dug in the beast's path, and the noose of a cord, of which the other end is secured to a log, is laid closely within the upper hoop. When the beast treads on the apparatus, he crashes through the thorns, but, on withdrawing his foot from the hole, the wreath clings to his fetlock like a ruff, and prevents the noose from slipping off. Thus there is time for the noose to become firmly jammed during the struggles of the beast. Of course, the trapper artfully bushes the path, so as to induce him to step full upon the trap. He sets a great many of them, and they require no looking after. The diameter of the hoops is made proportionate to the size of the beast for which they are intended. Six inches interior diameter was the size used for buffalo and hartebeest.

Traps.—Steel traps should never be tied fast, or the captured animal may struggle loose, or even gnaw off his leg. It is best to cut small bushes, and merely to secure the traps to their cut ends. Steel traps are of but little use to a traveller.

Hawks are trapped by selecting a bare tree, that stands in an open space: its top is sawn off level, and a trap is put upon it: the bait is laid somewhere near, on the ground: the bird is sure to visit the pole, either before or after he has fed.

Poison.—Savages frequently poison the water of drinking-places, and follow, capture, and eat the poisoned animals. Nux vomica or strychnine is a very dangerous poison to use, but it affords the best means of ridding a neighbourhood of noxious beasts and birds: if employed to kill beasts, put it in the belly; if, birds, in the eye, of the bait. Meat for killing Beasts should be set after nightfall; else the crows and other birds will be sure to find it out, and eat it up before the beasts have time to discover it. It would be unsafe to eat an animal killed with strychnine, on account of the deadliness of the poison.

The Swedes put fulminating-powder in a raw shankbone, and throw it down to the wolves; when one of these gnaws and crunches it, it blows his head to atoms.

Poisoned Bullets.—I take the following extract from 'Galignani's Messenger:'—"A new method of catching whales is now being tried with considerable success, science having contributed to its discovery. Our readers are well aware of the deadly effects of the Indian poison called wurare, or woorali, concerning which we have often had occasion to record the most interesting experiments, especially in mentioning the attempts made to use it as a specific for lockjaw, its peculiar action consisting in relaxing the muscular system. Strychnine is a poison producing the contrary effect, the excessive contraction of that system, or, in other words, tetanus, or lockjaw. It is a curious fact that by the conjunction of these two agents, so diametrically opposite in their effects, a poison is obtained that will kill almost instantly if only administered in the dose of half a milligramme per kilogramme of the animal to be subjected to its action, provided its weight do not exceed ten kilogrammes. If larger, the dose must be proportionally increased. M. Thiercelin, the inventor of this poison, composes it by mixing a salt of strychnine with one-twentieth of woorali. To apply it to whale fishing, he makes the compound up into cartridges of thirty grammes (an ounce) each, which is enough to kill an animal of 60,000 kilogrammes weight. Each cartridge is imbedded in the gunpowder contained in an explosive shell which is fired off on the whale. In a late whaling voyage ten whales received such missiles, and all died within from four to eighteen minutes after the infliction of the wound. Out of these ten whales, six were cut up for their blubber and whalebone. Their remains were handled by careless men, who frequently had scratches and sores on their skin, and yet not one of them suffered the slightest injury, a circumstance which Shows that the poison cannot be transmitted from the fish to the men. Its poisonous action on the whale is, however, so great that practically the dose will have to be diminished, so that the death of the creature may not be so sudden. We should not forget to state that two out of the ten whales above mentioned were lost by one of the many accidents incident to whaling, and that two others were of a kind that is not worth fishing for."

Poisoned Arrows.—Arrows are most readily poisoned by steeping a thread in the juice, and wrapping it round the barbs. Serpents' venom may always be used with effect.

Bird-lime can be made from the middle bark of most parasitic plants, that is to say, those that grow like mistletoe, out of the boughs of other trees. Holly and young elder shoots also afford it. The bark is boiled for seven or eight hours, till quite soft, and is then drained of its water and laid in heaps, in pits dug in the ground, where it is covered with stones and left for two or three weeks to ferment; but less time is required, if the weather be hot. It is watered from time to time, if necessary. In this way, it passes into a mucilaginous state; and is then pounded into a paste, washed in running water, and kneaded till it is free from dirt and chips. Lastly, it is left for four or five days in earthen vessels, to ferment and purify itself, when it becomes fit for use. It ought to be greenish, sour, gluey, stringy, and sticky. It becomes brittle when dry, and may be powdered; but, on being wetted, it becomes sticky again. (Ure's Dictionary.)

Vast flocks of birds frequent the scattered watering-places of dry countries at nightfall and at daybreak: by liming the sedges and bushes that grow about them, numbers of birds could be caught.

Crows may be killed by twisting up a piece of paper like an extinguisher, dropping a piece of meat in it, and smearing its sides with bird-lime. When the bird pokes his head in, his eyes are gummed up and blinded; and he towers upwards in the air, whence he soon falls down exhausted, and, it may be, dead with fright. (Lloyd.) Fish-hooks, baited with meat, are good to catch these sorts of birds.

Catching with the Hand.—Ducks.—We hear of Hindoos who, taking advantage of the many gourds floating on their waters, put one of them on their heads, and wade in among wild ducks; they pull them down, one after another, by their legs, under water; wring their necks, and tie them to their girdle. But in Australia, a swimmer binds grass and rushes, or weeds, round his head; and takes a long fishing-rod, with a slip noose working over the pliant twig that forms the last joint of the rod. When he comes near, he gently raises the end, and, putting the noose over the head of the bird, draws it under water to him. He thus catches one after another, and tucks the caught ones in his belt. A windy day is generally chosen, because the water is ruffled. (Eyre.)

Condors and Vultures are caught by spreading a raw ox-hide, under which a man creeps, with a piece of string in his hand, while one or two other men are posted in ambush close by, to give assistance at the proper moment. When the bird flies down upon the bait, his legs are seized by the man underneath the skin, and are tied within it, as in a bag. All his flapping is then useless; he cannot do mischief with his claws, and he is easily overpowered.

Bolas.—The bolas consists of three balls, composed either of lead or stone; two of them are heavy, but the third is rather lighter: they are fastened to long elastic strings, made of twisted sinews, and the ends of the strings are all tied together. The Indian holds the lightest of the three balls in his hand, and swings the two others in a wide circle above his head; then taking his aim, at the distance of about fifteen or twenty paces, he lets go the hand-ball; all the three balls whirl in a circle, and twine round the object aimed at. The aim is usually taken at the hind-legs of the animals, and, the cords twisted round them, they become firmly bound. It requires great skill and long practice to throw the boas dexterously, especially when on horseback. A novice in the art incurs the risk of dangerously hurting either himself or his horse, by not giving the balls the proper swing, or by letting go the hand-ball too soon. (Tschudi's 'Peru.')

Lasso.—It is useless that I should enter into details about making and wielding the lasso, for it is impossible to become Moderately adept in its use, without months of instruction and practice.

Amstringing.—Animals are hamstrung by riding at them, armed with a sort of spear; the blade of which is fixed at right angles to the shaft, and has a cutting edge.

Hawking is a disappointing pursuit, owing to the frequent loss of hawks; and can hardly be carried on except in a hawking country, where the sportsman has a better chance than elsewhere, both of recovering and replacing them; it is impracticable except where the land is open and bare; and it is quite a science. There are some amateurs who will not hear a word of disparagement about their hawks, but the decided impression that I bear away with me from all I have learnt, is, that the birds are rarely affectionate or intelligent.



FISHING.

Fishing-tackle.—Fish-hooks are made of iron, not steel, wire. While the piece of wire is straight, it is laid along a little groove in a block of wood, and there barbed by the stroke of a chisel, slantwise across it. The other end is flattened by a tap of the hammer, or roughened, that it may be held by the whipping; then the point is sharpened by a file, and finished on a stone. The proper curvature is next given, and then the hook is case-hardened (see "Case-hardening"); lastly, the proper temper is given, by heating the hook red-hot, and quenching it in grease.

A traveller should always take a few hooks with him: they should be of the very small and also of the middling-sized sorts; he might have a dozen of each sort whipped on to gut; and at least a couple of casting-lines, with which to use them: also several dozens of tinned iron fish-hooks, of various sizes, such as are used at sea; and plenty of line.

Fishing-lines.—Twisted sinews will make a fishing-line. To make a strong fine line, unravel a good silk handkerchief, and twist the threads into a whipcord. (See also "Substitutes for String.")

Gut is made from silkworms; but the scrapings of the membrane in the manufacture of catgut (see "Sinew-thread") Make a fine, strong, and somewhat transparent thread: twisted horsehair can almost always be obtained: and boiling this in soap-lees, takes away its oiliness.

Shoemakers' Wax is made by boiling together common resin and any kind of soft grease, which does not contain salt, such as oil or butter. A sixth or seventh part of pitch makes it more tough, but it is not absolutely necessary for making the wax. Try if the quantity of grease is sufficient by dipping the stick with which the wax is stirred, into water to cool it. When the wax is supposed to be successfully made, pour it into water, then taking it out while yet soft, pull it and stretch it with your wet hands as much as it will bear; do this over and over again, after dipping it in lukewarm water, till it is quite tough. Wax is used of different degrees of hardness, according as the weather is warm or cold.

Reel. If you have no reel, make a couple of gimlet-holes, six inches apart, in the butt of your rod, at the place where the reel is usually clamped; drive wooden pegs into these, and wind your spare line round them, as in fig. 1.

[Fig 1: illustration as described above].

The pegs should not be quite square with the butt, but should slope a little, each away from the other, that the line may be better retained on them.

{Fig. 2 and Fig 3—line as described below].

A long line is conveniently wound on a square frame, as shown in the annexed sketch (fig. 2); and a shorter line, as in fig. 3.

If you have no equivalent for a reel, and if your tackle is slight, and the fish likely to be large, provide yourself with A bladder or other float; tie it to the line, and cast the whole adrift.

Trimmers are well known, and are a convenient way of fishing the middle of a pool, with only a short line. Anything will do for the float—a bladder or a bottle is very good.

To recover a lost Line, make a drag of a small bushy tree with plenty of branches, that are so lopped off as to leave spikes on the trunk. This is to be weighted with a stone, and dragged along the bottom.

Otters.—What is called "an otter" is useful to a person on the shore of a wide river or lake which he has no other means of fishing: it is a very successful at first, but soon scares the fish; therefore it is better suited to a traveller than to an ordinary sportsman. It is made as follows:—A board of light wood, fourteen inches long and eight inches high, or thereabouts, is heavily weighted along its lower edge, so as to float upright in the water; a string like the bellyband of a kite, and for the same purpose, is fastened to it; and to this belly-band the end of a line, furnished with a dozen hooks at intervals, is tied. As the fisherman walks along the bank, the otter runs away from him, and carries his line and hooks far out into the stream. It is very convenient to have a large hand-reel to wind and unwind the line upon; but a forked stick will do very well.

Boat fishing.—In fishing with a long ground-line and many hooks, it is of importance to avoid entanglements; make a box in which to coil the line, and a great many deep saw-cuts across the sides, into which the thin short lines, to which the hooks are whipped, may be jammed.

Fishermen who do not use oars, but paddles, tie a loop to their line: they put their thumb through the loop, and fish while they paddle.

To see Things deep under Water, such as dead seals, use a long box or tube with a piece of glass at the lower end; this removes entirely the glare of the water and the effects of a rippled surface. Mr. Campbell, of Islay, suggests that a small glass window might be let into the bottom of the boat: Plate-glass would be amply strong enough. (See "Water-spectacles.")

Nets.—A small square net may be best turned to account by sinking it in holes and other parts of a river which fish frequent; throwing in bait to attract them over it; and then hauling up suddenly. The arrangement shown in the figure is very common. A seine net may be furnished with bladder for floats, or else with pieces of light wood charred to make them more buoyant. The hauling-ropes may be made of bark steeped for three weeks, till the inner bark separates from the outer, when the latter is twisted into a rope. (Lloyd.) Wherever small fish are swimming in shoals near the surface, there the water is sure to be rippled.

[Sketch of net arrangement as described].

Spearing Fish.—The weapon used (sometimes called the "grains") is identical with Neptune's or Britannia's trident, only the prongs should be more numerous and be placed nearer together, in order to catch small fish: the length of the handle gives steadiness to the blow. In spearing by torchlight, a broad oval piece of bark is coated with wet mud, and in it a blazing fire is lighted. It is fixed on a stage, or it is held in the bow of the boat, so high as to be above the spearman's eyes. He can see everything by its light, especially if the water be not above four feet deep, and the bottom sandy. But there are not many kinds of wood that will burn with a sufficiently bright flame; the dry bark of some resinous tree is often used. If tarred rope can be obtained, it may simply be wound round a pole fixed in the bow of the boat, and lighted. Fish can also be shot with a bow and a barbed arrow, to which a string is attached.

Intoxicating Fish.—Lime thrown into a pond will kill the fish; and the similar but far more energetic properties of Cocculus Indicus are well known. Throughout tropical Africa and in South America, the natives catch fish by poisoning them. Dams are made, which, when the river is very low, Enclose deep pools of water with no current; into these the poison is thrown: it intoxicates the fish, which float and are taken by the hand.

Otters, Cormorants, and Dogs.—Both otters and cormorants are trained to catch fish for their masters; and dogs are trained by the Patagonians to drive fish into the nets, and to frighten them from breaking loose when the net is being hauled in. Cormorants, in China, fish during the winter from October to May, working from 10 A.M. to 5 P.M., at which hour their dinner is given to them. When they fish, a straw tie is put round their necks, to keep them from swallowing the fish, but not so tight as to slip down and choke them. A boat takes out ten or twelve of these birds. They obey the voice: if they are disobedient, the water near them is struck with the back of the oar; as soon as one of them has caught a fish, he is called to the boat, and the oar is held out for him to step upon. It requires caution to train a cormorant, because the bird has a habit, when angry, of striking with its beak at its instructor's eye with an exceedingly rapid and sure stroke.



SIGNALS.

Colomb and Bolton's flashing signals, adopted in our Army and Navy, and used in many other countries as well, are eminently suited to the wants of an expedition. Anything may be used for signalling, that appears and disappears, like a lantern, or an opened and closed umbrella, or that moves, as a waved flag or a person walking to and fro on the crest of a hill against the sky. Sound also can be employed, as long and short whistles. Their use can be thoroughly taught in two hours, and however small the practice of the operators, communication, though slow, is fairly accurate, while in practised hands its rapidity is astonishing. The proportion of time occupied by the flashes and intervals is as follows. (I extract all the rest of the article from the pamphlet published by the inventors of the system.)

Flashing Signals, with Flags.—Supposing the short flash to be half a second in duration, the long flash should be fully a second and a half. The interval between the flashes forming a figure should be equal to a short flash, and the interval between two figures should be equal to a long flash. After the last figure of the signal is finished, there should be a pause equal to at least one-third of the time taken up by the figures. After this pause, the signal should be again repeated with the same measured flashes and intervals, and so continued until answered by all to whom it is addressed.

[Example of Morse code].

Care must be taken never to commence a fresh signal before the answers to the last have ceased; and signals are never to be answered until their repetitions have been observed a sufficient number of times to make an error impossible.

[Fig. 1 and Fig 2—sketch of signalling with flags as described below].

The signalman may work from left to right, or from right to left, as shown in figs. 1 and 2, according to convenience and the direction of the wind. To make a short flash, the flag is waved from a to b, and back to the normal position a. To make a long flash, the flag is waved from a to c, and back to the normal position a.

The numerals 1 to 5 are, therefore, denoted by one to five waves of the flag from a to b, recovering to a.

The numeral 6 by a wave from a to c, recovering to a. The numeral 7 by a wave from a to b, back to a, and then to c, recovering to the normal position a. The numeral 8 is denoted by a wave from a to c, back to a, and then to b, recovering to the normal position a. The numeral 9 is denoted by two waves from a to b, and one from a to c. The numeral 0 by one wave from a to c, recovering again to a, and then two waves from a to b. The other signs are made in the same manner, so that a short motion shall always represent a short flash, and a long motion a long flash.

On the completion of the motions required for each sign, the flag must always be brought to the position a. When the word, or group of figures, is completed, the flag may be lowered in front of the body.

In receiving a message, the flag should always be kept in the position a, except when answering.

In waving the flag, the point of the staff should be made to describe a figure of 8 in the air to keep the flag clear.

Each signal party must consist of not less than two men, whose duties will be as follows:—

In receiving messages: No. 1 works the flag for answering, etc., and refers to the code for the interpretation of the numbers received, and calls out the words to No. 2. No. 2 fixes the telescope and reads from the distant station, calling out the numbers as they are made for the information of No. 1, and writes down the numbers and meaning thereof.

Suppose station "A" in communication with station "B":—No. 1 at "A" on being told by No. 2 that "B" is about to send a message, takes up his position at attention, holding the flag over the left arm and under the right, or vice versa across his body, according to the wind, with the code book in his hand. No. 2 fixes his eyes on the glass, and on receiving the numbers from "B" calls them out to No. 1, who ascertains their meaning from the code, and gives the words to No. 2, who writes them down in his book, and then placing his eye to the glass, tells No. 1 to make the answer. No. 2 does not, however, direct the answer to be made until he is sure of the correctness of the signal received.

Flashing Alphabet, for Use without a Code.—The following alphabet, etc., can be used under circumstances when it is not convenient or possible to have recourse to the Signal Book, and forms in itself a perfect telegraphic system, necessarily somewhat slow in its application, but having the great advantage of requiring very little previous knowledge and practice to work with correctness. The symbols and numbers expressing the alphabet are identical with those forming the alphabet in the Signal Book.

[Chart with code signals].

All particulars as to the machines and lanterns used in the Service, for making these flashing signals, and the code, can be procured at W. Nunn and Co.'s Army and Navy Lamp and Signal Works, 65, George Street East, London, E.