To refer to but one other hindrance to Christian progress in Japan—which, although the last mentioned, is by no means the least serious—I mean the estimate formed by the natives of the practical influence of the Christian religion upon English people and upon other nations professing it. Applying to Christianity the test of its results, they urge that it has, at any rate, only very partially succeeded. For instance, the Japanese comment upon the fact that numbers of Englishmen in Japan never attend the services of their Church; and that the lives of many of them display a flagrant disregard for the principles which should regulate the conduct of Christians. Without, however, denying either the justice of these charges, or the reasonableness of the mood which advances them, I think it may be urged with fairness that the influence of Christianity on us as a nation cannot rightly be estimated in this particular way. As a rule, the Englishman can scarcely be said to appear to advantage abroad. Too often he assumes an attitude of insolent superiority to the people whose guest he is; while the position in which our countrymen are placed in a country like Japan—coupled with the freedom from restraint, so much greater than at home—has, for reasons which we need not now enter into, its peculiar difficulties. Neither is it by any means certain that a Japanese, paying a short visit to England, will gather any just impression of what hold Christianity has on us as a people. In all probability the range of his observations will be very limited and superficial; his wanderings will be chiefly confined to the great thoroughfares of the principal cities; while the circle of his acquaintance will, it is likely, be equally restricted, and equally unrepresentative of English life. Not that, in saying this, we would seek to excuse ourselves, or deny that there is far more truth than we could wish, and than there ought to be, in the charges brought against us. We would merely submit that there is another side to the picture which ought not, in fairness, to be overlooked. Admitting as we must, for instance, the great prevalence of infidelity in our England of to-day, there is yet to be placed over against it,—and may I not add, drawing it out into the light?—the increased activity of the Church during this last half-century, the remarkable power she has exhibited of adapting herself to meet the needs of her times, the influence for good that she has not only been in the past, but remains at the present day, in the nation at large, and in thousands and thousands of English homes. "By their fruits ye shall know them": and Christianity must not and need not deprecate the application of that test to herself. Only, we would urge, that is not a fair judgment, which takes account only of what the Church of Jesus Christ has failed to do, without recognizing also all that, in the strength of her Divine Head, she has been permitted to accomplish.



V. CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN.

I propose now to place before my readers some account of the various Missions at work in Japan. I am enabled to do this the better from having obtained, in the course of my visit, a useful table, compiled by the Rev. H. Loomis, of the American Bible Society, Yokohama, giving statistics of the different organizations up to the beginning of the year 1893. The plan adopted by Mr. Loomis is to arrange his statistics into three classes: (1) "Protestant Missions," (2) "Catholic Missions," and (3) "The Greek Church in Japan." Under the head of "Protestant Missions," are included the Church of England, the Episcopal Church of America, a large number of other American denominations, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, the Swiss Evangelical Protestant Mission, the Society of Friends, U.S.A., Universalists, Unitarians and others; while under the head of "Catholic Missions" we find particulars of only one branch of the Holy Catholic Church—the Church of Rome. This is not the arrangement I should have made myself; but, as a matter of convenience, we will follow it more or less closely.(29) It is right to add that of the thirty "Protestant Missions" seven are grouped together under the title of the "Church of Christ in Japan," and work, it would appear, in general harmony on Presbyterian principles. In the same way, the American Episcopal Church, the Church of England—represented by both the Church Missionary Society and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel—and the Mission of Wyckliffe College, Canada, are associated together; leaving some twenty sects working independently.(30)

Before, however, proceeding to an examination of Mr. Loomis' table, we must briefly observe the past history of Christianity in Japan. This dates from the arrival of St. Francis Xavier in 1549, seven years after the country was discovered by the Portuguese. For some while the missionaries were permitted to prosecute their work without molestation, and considerable progress was being effected. A deputation of native priests appealed to the Tycoon, but their remonstrances were unheeded. With thirty-five religious sects already represented in Japan, the country, he answered, might very well find room for a thirty-sixth religion, viz. Christianity. Presently, however, the Jesuits being followed by the Dominicans and Franciscans, mutual factions broke out; while, elated by their success, some of the missionaries began to adopt an attitude of high-handed intolerance and interference. For the first time in their history, the Japanese found themselves entangled in all the turmoil and animosity of religious strife. In 1587 the first persecution of the Christians took place, but apparently soon subsided. The warning, however, was disregarded; and the fatal policy of arrogance and oppression was still persisted in. Native priests were put to death; Buddhist monasteries were destroyed; the Inquisition was set up. In 1614 we find a Japanese embassy despatched to Rome, in order, so it is said, to make an act of submission to the spiritual supremacy of the Pope. Meanwhile the Dutch, jealous of the position that was being gained by the Portuguese traders, accused the Roman propagandists to the Japanese authorities of aiming at a territorial ascendency; and that intrigues were actually being carried on by the Jesuits for the overthrow of the Shogun there seems little doubt. In the massacre which ensued several thousand Christians were put to death. "Their unflinching devotion compels our admiration. One may search the grim history of early Christian martyrology without finding anything to surpass the heroism of the Roman Catholic Martyrs of Japan. Burnt on stakes made of crosses, torn limb from limb, buried alive, they yet refused to recant. We are told of one Jesuit priest, Christopher Ferreya, who, after enduring horrible tortures, was at length hung by his feet in such a way that his head was buried in a hole in the ground from which air and light were excluded. His right-hand was left loose that he might make the sign of recantation. He hung for four hours, and then made the sign; whereupon, with a rare refinement of cruelty, he was appointed the president of the tribunal before which Christians were brought for condemnation. Then, after a lull, in 1637 thousands of Christians rose in armed rebellion. After two months they were forced to surrender, and 37,000 were slaughtered. Stern decrees were then issued, forbidding the admission of any foreign vessel; an exception being made in favour of the Chinese and Dutch. For more than two hundred years, notice-boards stood beside highways, ferries, and mountain-passes, containing, among other prohibitions, the following:—'So long as the sun shall warm the earth, let no Christian be so bold as to come to Japan; and let all know that the King of Spain himself, or the Christians' God, or the great God of all, if he violate this commandment, shall pay for it with his head.' For centuries the name 'Christian' would blanch the cheek and pale the lip. Christianity was remembered only as an awful scar on the national annals. But in the Southern Island the smouldering fire was never quite extinguished; while, as recently as 1829, six men and an old woman were crucified at Osaka."(31)

At the time of the closing of the country to foreigners, an exception was made of the one port of Nagasaki, the scene of the final great massacre, when thousands of native Christians were hurled from a rocky islet into the sea. Here, however, as has been already mentioned, the Dutch were the only Europeans permitted to trade; they being closely confined to the small island of Deshima. In addition to having pay a heavy rental, they were subjected to the closest espionage, not being suffered, under any circumstances, to pass beyond the narrow limits assigned to them. Several times in each year they were summoned before the authorities, and required to tread under foot the Crucifix, and other symbols of the Catholic Faith. Several of the trampling-boards employed on these occasions are still to be seen at the Ueno Museum, Tokio. The Dutch, it would appear, quieted any qualms of conscience by regarding their action as amounting to an abnegation, not of Christianity, but of Romanism. It was not until thirty years ago that intercourse between Japan and other nations began to be resumed; and that, after a short period of ill-feeling and suspicion, circumstances were brought about which enabled both Roman Catholics and other Christians to work without hindrance. In 1872 the interdict against Christianity was formally removed; and the release from imprisonment and return from banishment of hundreds of Christians took place.

Such is the past history of Christianity in Japan. It has, indeed, its elements of glorious and heroic martyrdom, but it has elements, also, on which few of us can look back without a deep sense of shame. Let us trust that by this time the people of Japan have come to understand that the conflict of their forefathers was not with Christianity, but rather with Christians who had forgotten "what spirit they were of."

Turning now to the condition of Christian Missions at the present day, it seems right to commence with those of the Roman Church. Not only has the Roman Church in Japan a history which extends over three hundred years, but it reckons at the present time considerably more than double the number of adherents claimed by any other Christian body. The Roman influence has been particularly successful in the Goto Islands, in the neighbourhood of Nagasaki, where the devoted labours of the missionaries have won over a considerable portion of the population.

To come to the statistics. These give one Archbishop, three Bishops, seventy-eight missionary, and fifteen native priests, with over 300 (native) minor clergy and catechists; 185 churches and chapels, with 244 congregations. Seventy-six sisters of the Order of St. Paul de Chartres are stationed in Japan, and there are further nineteen native novices. Other statistics include seventeen orphanages, with an average of over 100 children; twenty Industrial Schools; eight Nursing establishments; a Hospital for the Aged; and a Hospital for Lepers, with sixty-two inmates, situated at Gotemba, at the foot of Fuji-san. The number of infant baptisms for 1892 is given as, children of Christian parents 1,337, and Heathen parents 1,166; these, with 2,806 adult baptisms, and forty-five "conversions of heretics," bringing the total of baptisms and conversions for the year to 5,354. The work that is being done by the Roman missionaries is commended on all sides; a prominent feature in their methods being a consideration for, and adaptation to, the habits and prejudices of the people, that greatly facilitate their progress, especially among the poor of the country districts. The whole number of Roman Catholics in Japan amounts, as has been said already, to about 45,000.

I pass on to speak of the condition of the Greek, or Orthodox Russian, Church in Japan; whose relations with the Church of England are here, as elsewhere, of a friendly though not, of course, of a very intimate character. Its head-quarters are at Tokio, where an imposing Cathedral, situated on high ground and in a central position, has recently been erected. Unfortunately our information in this case is very incomplete; but assuming the correctness of the numbers before us, one is struck by the paucity of missionary clergy, viz. one bishop and three priests. To these must be added eighteen native clergy, and 128 unordained teachers and workers. There are in all 219 congregations. The number of adult baptisms in 1892 is given as 952; and the total membership at the present time exceeds 20,000. Scanty as these details are, they indicate much activity and progress. The proximity of Russian territory to Japan—Vladivostock being only some 700 miles N. of Nagasaki—is, of course, a circumstance highly favourable to the Orthodox Mission.

Coming now to the various bodies arranged by Mr. Loomis under the title of "Protestant," we will take first the Nippon Sei Kokwai, or Church of Japan, which is the name given to the union formed by the Missions of the American Episcopal Church, the Church of England, and the English Church in Canada. It is, however, only fair to say that the total number of adherents of the Nippon Sei Kokwai are greatly less than half the number claimed by the Presbyterian Churches, as also by the Churches of the American Board's Mission. The Missions, then, of the American Church and of the Church of England are to a great extent worked independently of each other, each being under its own Episcopal control; but at the same time, the two Churches enjoy, of course, full intercommunion, and are practically one,—often taking counsel together, and dividing the various districts by mutual arrangement in such a way as to make the best use of their resources. To the American Church belongs the honour of being the first body to commence Christian work in Japan in the present century; the Rev. C. M. Williams, afterwards Bishop for Japan and China, establishing himself at Tokio in 1859, and proceeding at once to translate portions of the Bible and Prayer-Book, hold services for the benefit of English-speaking people, and set on foot schemes for the study of our language. There are now twelve missionary clergy at work, and twenty-one female missionaries; together with seven native clergy and nineteen unordained workers and preachers. Of the twenty-seven organized churches only one is wholly self-supporting. The number of baptisms in 1892 was, adults 208, children fifty-eight; while the total membership amounts to over 1,400, with a like number of children receiving instruction in Sunday Schools. In 1873, Dr. Henry Laming was appointed missionary physician, and arrived at Osaka, where he has done and is still doing an excellent work. A good deal of secular educational work is also carried on in connexion with the mission.



Sketch Map of Japan.

We next come to the work of the Church Missionary Society, which commenced operations in Japan in 1869. The Society has now twenty-two missionary and seven native clergy engaged; forty-two female missionaries, and sixty unordained preachers. Of its sixteen organized churches one is self-supporting. The number of baptisms in 1892 was, adults 267, children 121; and the total membership at the present time amounts to 2,126, with 600 children in Sunday Schools.

The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel commenced work in 1873; and has its headquarters at Tokio. The work of the two Community Missions, founded by Bishop Bickersteth in 1887, is apparently included in the statistics assigned to the S. P. G. in the table before us. At St. Andrew's University Mission, five clergy—all of whom are University Graduates,—live in community with several native students preparing for Ordination, while at St. Hilda's Mission, a staff of English ladies is engaged in work, which includes schools, a hospital, and a home for mission women. Both these Missions are supported by the "Guild of St. Paul,"—a society which has branches all over England,—whose occasional papers are full of interesting information. Several other priests of the S. P. G. are engaged at various mission stations; and these, with seven native ministers, make in all some nineteen clergy at work in Japan. The adult baptisms in 1892 numbered 151, and the membership at the present time is given as 784.

The Wyckliffe College Mission was sent out by the Canadian Church in 1888. At present it provides only three clergy, who are engaged at Nagoya, a flourishing commercial city situated about midway between Kyoto and Tokio. Bishop Bickersteth, however, in his recent Pastoral Letter, refers to its work in hopeful and appreciative terms.

The total number of adherents of the Nippon Sei Kokwai will thus be seen to be about 4,300 (with upwards of 2,000 Sunday Scholars); and of these the Church of England can claim barely 3,000. At the same time evidence is by no means lacking that the work is being carried on upon thoroughly sound principles and along right lines; and there are many reasons for believing that, with adequate resources, a future awaits it, under God, far exceeding the calculations that might be suggested by its present numerical strength. Some of the readers of these pages may, possibly, be in greater sympathy with the general position of the S. P. G. than of the C. M. S; but no consideration of this sort should allow us to be inappreciative of the splendid work which the C. M. S. has done in the past, and is still doing in non-Christian countries. Its chief centre in Japan is at Osaka, another huge commercial city, some twenty miles from Kyoto where there is a considerable European settlement. Bishop Bickersteth—as does also the American Bishop, Dr. Williams(32)—resides at Tokio, the capital; where the services at St. Andrew's Church, adjoining the Episcopal residence, are such as may well gladden the heart of an English Churchman, who finds himself 11,000 miles from home. They include, I may mention, a Daily Celebration. A striking feature of the Nippon Sei Kokwai is presented in its Biennial Synods, three, if not four, of which have already been held. The Synods are composed of clergy and laity, every congregation of twenty persons being entitled to send its representative; and they indicate a stage of organization rarely, if ever, attained to by so youthful a Church. In a word, what is being aimed at throughout is not to Europeanize, but to Christianize; not to form a "branch of the Church of England," but to establish, on those lines of Catholic and Apostolic Christianity which we believe the Church of England faithfully represents, a Japanese Church, which may be committed, as soon as ever circumstances allow, entirely into the hands of the Japanese themselves.

The Bishop's Pastoral Letter to his Clergy (Advent 1892) treats, among other matters, of the Marriage Law of the Church, of Old Testament Criticism,—in the course of his comments upon which, he makes the quotation, "The central object of our Faith is not the Bible, but our Lord"—and of the Bishop of Lincoln's case. It exhibits throughout a tone of earnest Catholicity, of sanctified prudence, and of Apostolic charity. The Bishop's observations on the confirmation by the Privy Council of the Lambeth Judgment will be read with satisfaction by many:—

"The principle of allowed variety in matters of ritual has now been authoritatively recognized. Such recognition is essential to the welfare of a great and living Church in our day. Among other good results which may follow from the decision, I cannot but hope will be the liberation of the energies and interests of a great and historic party, hitherto far too closely confined within the boundaries of our own country, for wider and more extended work, above all in eastern countries. Its own position is now legally secured. Any outstanding questions of ritual could be speedily settled by the application to them of the same principles which are embodied in the recent judgments. This is so plain that probably no such decisions will be challenged. May it not then be hoped that there will shortly be a marked cessation of controversy at home, as for some years past we are told there has been in our sister Church in the United States, and coincidently a far more determined effort on the part of the whole Church than has yet been known, inspired and sustained by the Holy Spirit of Truth, to win the East to the Faith of Christ?"

We come next to the Church of Christ in Japan, another amalgamation of religious bodies; comprising, in this case, the Presbyterian Church of the United States, two or three other American sects, and the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland. By far the greater number of denominations engaged in Japan are of American origin; and this is, practically, an American work; the Scotch Presbyterians being represented by only two missionaries with a single station, and only joining the Mission in 1875—fifteen years after two of the American bodies had commenced their work. The number of male missionaries in connexion with this movement amounts to fifty-two; and to these must be added fifty-three native ministers, 100 female missionaries, and over 100 lay preachers and workers. Of the seventy-four organized churches no less than one-third are wholly self-supporting. Baptisms in 1892 were, adults 789, children 100; and the total present membership amounts to 11,190, with over 2,000 children in Sunday Schools. The fact that the Presbyterians of Japan have recently adopted the Apostles' Creed as their Confession of Faith, in place of the formularies with which their bodies have hitherto been associated, is hardly the occasion for satisfaction that would at first sight appear; the course in question being, I understand, to some extent due to the prevalence of views similar to those held by a large number of the Congregationalists of Japan, to which I shall presently refer. The work of the Presbyterians however, must be accounted among the most successful efforts for the evangelization of the country; while they have had from the beginning the advantage of being supported by men of national reputation and position.

We come now to the Kumi-ai Churches in connexion with the American Board's Mission; i.e. the Congregationalists. This work owes its foundation to a Japanese gentleman,—a Mr. Neesima,—who was converted to Christianity, whilst on a visit to America. Its head-quarters are at Kyoto. Starting in 1869—several years after the Presbyterians, their relations with whom are of a cordial character,—the Congregationalists very closely approach them in numerical strength. The Mission is worked by twenty-six missionary and twenty-eight native ministers; with fifty-seven female missionaries and 100 lay agents. Of ninety-two organized churches one half are self-supporting; a large proportion of the converts belonging to the middle and upper classes. 1,096 adults were baptized in 1892 and sixty-six children. Total adherents 10,700, with upwards of 6,000 children in Sunday Schools. In connexion with this Mission is a large college, in which the greater number of the students are Christians, and many of these candidates for the ministry; and mention must also be made of two hospitals under the care of missionary physicians. The above figures, without doubt, bear witness to great energy on the part of the Congregationalist body; and it is with regret that we find ourselves compelled to regard them with somewhat modified satisfaction.

"Speaking generally, it cannot be too clearly felt that systems which do not definitely teach the truths contained in the Apostolic and Nicene Creeds, whatever benefits may accrue to individuals from the moral teaching which they impart, are not merely negative in tendency and results, but retard the progress of the Kingdom of Christ in Eastern lands." Such are the weighty words of Bishop Bickersteth,(33) the occasion which drew them forth being the adoption by the Congregationalists of Japan of the following Declaration of Belief:—"We believe (i) in the One God, (ii) in Jesus Christ who came on earth to save sinners, (iii) in the Holy Spirit from Whom we receive new life, (iv) in the Bible which shews us the way of salvation, and (v) in Baptism and the Holy Supper, in punishments and rewards given by God according to our merits, in everlasting life if we are righteous, and in the Resurrection of the Dead." Several of the clauses in this statement are open to grave objection; but the fact that the second clause was deliberately adopted in place of the words, "in Jesus Christ, the Only-Begotten Son of God, Who suffered and died to atone for the sins of the world"—an alteration which was heartily welcomed by the Unitarians of Japan—is full of painful significance. The Bishop, while expressing his thankfulness that there are large numbers in the Congregationalist body, who have no share in the prevailing scepticism, points out that in dealing with others, with whom this is not the case, nothing can be gained by any attempt at co-operation. "At such times a severe exclusiveness may be the truest exhibition of a heartfelt sympathy."

To the remaining Missions at work in Japan we can only very briefly refer. The American Methodist Episcopal Church has eighteen missionaries and twenty-nine native ministers; fifty-eight churches; and a total following of nearly 4,000, exclusive of children in Sunday Schools. The Canadian Methodists number over 1,800 adults; and the Baptist Missionary Union (U.S.A.) about 1,300. Two other American sects place their total at 500 each. The German Swiss Protestants number 240; the "Universalists" seventy-eight; and the Society of Friends (U.S.A.) forty-three. The Scandinavian Church, whose mission has only recently commenced its work, has seven clergy engaged; and the Unitarians are represented by two ministers—my only reason for mentioning these last-named bodies together being that no further particulars of either are to hand.

But it is time to be bringing these remarks to a conclusion. We may, then, declare the total number in Japan of those professing Christianity in any form—[I should, by the way, have mentioned that the number of male converts would appear to exceed by about one-third the number of women,]—to be not more than 100,000; while the entire population of the country is estimated at from thirty-eight to forty millions. In other words, not more than one person in every 400 can be said to be, in any sense, a Christian. I emphasize this fact, not because I think it discouraging, but because it seems becoming the fashion for the cause of Christianity in Japan to be spoken of as already won. That Japan has still great changes and developments to undergo in the near future scarcely admits of question. "The nation is working out its spiritual redemption;" and, as Mr. Loomis well says in his letter to The Christian before referred to, "As Japanese society advances, there will be all the more a place for Christian influence. The social problems of the people can only find solution through religion." We may well believe and hope that, as time goes on, the true faith of Jesus Christ and of His Church will more and more prevail. So, too, we may rejoice that the foundations have been laid, and that some real and steady progress has been effected; we may hope that more is, even now, being accomplished by the leaven of influence than can at present find place in tables and statistics. And yet, as we look the position boldly in the face, we must see that elements to occasion anxiety are by no means lacking; and especially must we see how much more remains to be done that has already been achieved. The possibility of some form of Christianity being adopted as the national religion, is a matter as to the desirability of which it is extremely difficult to express an opinion, until the proposition assumes a more definite shape than is likely for some time to be the case.

That both Christianity and Christians are subjected to searching criticism at the hands of the more educated natives we have already seen; while, from time to time, tidings are received of bitter opposition encountered by those engaged in the work of evangelization among the poor of the country districts. Moreover, in that spirit of accommodation to which we have several times referred, as forming so striking a feature of the system, Buddhism appears now to be striving to maintain its position in Japan, by a re-statement of its doctrines in such terms as to place itself in accordance with the modern systems of philosophy, which have found such favour and acceptance with the educated classes. At the same time, there is, without doubt, a widespread persuasion throughout Japan—in many cases most reluctantly arrived at—that the former ascendency of Buddhism has for ever passed away. "A dull apathy as regards religion has settled down upon the educated classes of Japan. The gods of heathenism have crumbled to nothing before modern science and civilization, and the glimmer of light and truth to which they pointed has gone as well."(34) Sometimes, again, Christianity is spoken of by Buddhists in terms which encourage us to hope that there are those who, while they have not as yet taken the decisive step, are still "not far from the kingdom of God." Take, for examples, these words of a Mr. Nakanishi. "It is the glory of mankind that Jesus lived. Much that Christ taught will never decay. Did Christ's teaching come from man, or from above man? Every word, every phrase, of Christ should influence us. In the Four Gospels, the noblest and wisest morality of the world appears. So simple is it, so easily understood and applied. 'Love God and love man,' as central principles, suffice to regenerate society and lead men to heaven. Christ's character and teachings stand for ever."

With a brief reference to one or two further points suggested by Mr. Loomis' table, I will bring this, my last chapter, to a close. One of these is the distinction he draws—and it is a distinction quite worth drawing—between married and unmarried missionaries. Of course, the Roman clergy are all unmarried, as are also the four missionaries of the Orthodox Church; but when we come to the "Protestant Missions," we find the numbers of married and unmarried clergy to be 205 and thirty-seven respectively. Indeed, with the exception of the Church of England, the Scandinavian Alliance, and the American Methodist Episcopal Church, which supply six each, there is no mission with more than two unmarried clergy, and several have not even one. Now it is certain that this is not the way in which great mission work has been done in the past; but is the newer way better than the old? Beyond observing that the presence of female missionaries is in a very special degree needed in Japan, be they the wives of the clergy or not, I will not presume to answer that question myself; but I may, perhaps, be allowed to record the opinion, emphatically expressed to me, of one who has lived in the East for a great many years, and is by no means in sympathy with the compulsory celibacy of the Roman priesthood. "It is," he remarked, "far too hastily assumed that the fact of the married missionary usually bringing another valuable ally to the work sufficiently determines the question. But I am convinced that, speaking generally, it is to the unmarried missionary that wider opportunities of usefulness are extended. Nor is it merely that his movements are entirely free and unhampered—that he is exempt from domestic obligations and anxieties—that he has more time for study—and that he is thrown more in the society of his brother clergy. As a man's children begin to grow up, educational and other considerations in connexion with these, urge upon him the desirability of returning home, with the result that, just as he has begun to master the difficulties of language, and to enter into the thought and habits of the people, his place is taken by a tyro, who, however well-meaning, cannot but have all his experience to gain." No doubt, there is plenty of room for both married and unmarried clergy in the mission field; but the great preponderance of the married in the case before us may well serve to suggest the consideration:—Might not more of that large and possibly increasing number of unmarried clergy in England be drawn to take part in a work of such fascinating interest—"a work," if I may once more quote the words of our Bishop in Japan, "that must be done at once if it is to be done at all."

Another point that can scarcely fail to strike us as we examine Mr. Loomis' statistics, is the large number of "dismissals and exclusions" made by those bodies which supply information under this head, and amounting in some cases to several hundreds in a year. That such measures are not resorted to without grave reason may be assumed, and that some exercise of discipline is especially necessary in dealing with a young and nascent church admits of no dispute. There is indeed every reason to hope that by far the greater number of converts are actuated by an intense sincerity, and evidence of this is afforded in the self-sacrifice to which they, in many ways, readily submit for the Faith they have embraced. But, at the same time, it is probable that the numbers in question indicate an even larger proportion of "failures," than is the case with mission work generally; and that they point not only to losses through "back-sliding," but to many instances of insincerity on the part of those professing conversion. It has been remarked that it does not belong to the Japanese temperament to "take things au grand serieux;" and this characteristic extends to matters of religion. The young fellow, for instance, who, for some reason or another, thinks it "worth his while" to conform to Christianity for a time, will have the very smallest scruples about doing so; and that, with a semblance of earnestness that will baffle, at any rate for some time, the careful scrutiny to which candidates are rightly subjected by most, if not all, of the missionary bodies. The missionaries, I fear, are often imposed on; and yet—anything, surely, is better than being over suspicious and severe. After all, what we want to do is to show these different nations to whom we go, that Christ and His Church, and we, His members, do really care for them, alike in things temporal and eternal. Our Faith, to be really preached, needs to be boldly, hopefully practised. And especially in Japan, where the only idea that such a phrase as "eternal life" would commonly suggest is that of a series of painful and endless transmigrations, must Christianity be ready to prove herself man's friend in the things of this life, if she would be looked to with confidence for the things that lie beyond.



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FOOTNOTES

1 Sir Edwin Arnold's Seas and Lands, chap. xxvii.

2 Charles II's queen, it will be remembered, was Katharine of Braganza.

3 This rendering seems preferable to the more usual "Way of the Gods." The term Polytheism is not, strictly speaking, applicable to Shinto.

4 One of the great temples at Shiba, Tokio, was burnt by the Buddhists to prevent its falling into the hands of the Shinto priests. It may be mentioned here, as an instance of the liberal feeling of the present (Shinto) government, that one of this same group of buildings was lent for the Church of England services, before St. Andrew's church was built. It is the old nobility who have been throughout the uncompromising opponents of Christianity, and indeed of all change; and the most zealous supporters of Buddhism.

5 Eden's Japan, Historical and Descriptive.

6 Even an approximate total is difficult to calculate. At the lowest estimate we have a number considerably exceeding the whole mass of Christians. But it is important to bear in mind that in China, which supplies more than three-fourths of the total number, both Taouism and Confucianism are professed in conjunction with Buddhism. See Rhys Davids' Buddhism, chap. I (S.P.C.K.).

7 Thibet.

8 Light of Asia, i. 142, and vi. 688.

9 Lectures on Buddhism, pp. 62-3.

10 Legends and Theories of the Buddhists, p. 187.

11 Prof. Max Mueller, however (Hibbert Lectures, 1878, p. 134 note), gives weighty reasons for regarding 477 B.C. as the year of Buddha's death.

12 "The Buddhists look upon the Bo-tree as most Christians have looked upon the Cross."—Rhys Davids' Buddhism, p. 37 note.

13 It is, no doubt, owing largely to the influence of Buddhism that the passion of anger is almost unknown in Japan. In the same way, a Japanese, though the heart were well-nigh breaking, would consider it a most unworthy thing to let his grief betray itself.

14 Miss Isabella Bird (Mrs. Bishop), authoress of Unbeaten Tracks in Japan, well describes the impression produced on the spectator by the Daibutsus, or colossal images of Buddha, so common in Japan:—"He is not sleeping, he is not waking, he is not acting, he is not thinking, his consciousness is doubtful; he exists,—that is all; his work is done, a hazy beatitude, a negation remain. This is the Nirvana in which the devout Buddhist may aspire to participate."

The Daibutsu at Kamakura, of which an illustration is given opposite, is one of the largest in Japan. It is fifty feet high, and, as a work of art, is without a rival. The boss protruding from the forehead is supposed to represent a jewel, and to symbolize Illumination.

15 History of the Jewish Church, Vol. iii, Lecture xlv.

16 This is scarcely less true of Christianity; and it must be true, in some measure, of every religious system which attempts to minister to the needs of beings, so differently constituted, and so dissimilarly circumstanced, as are the members of the human race. As we proceed in this chapter to refer to the various schools of Buddhism and their characteristics, we can hardly fail to have suggested to us, more than once, those different aspects of Christianity, which have been the occasion of all our "schools of thought," and, alas, of how many of our divisions!

17 Those who would investigate the subject further are referred to Alabaster's The Modern Buddhist (Truebner, 1870).

18 For it is men only who inhabit this Celestial Region: women, worthy of attaining to it, have changed their sex.

19 Jodo means the "Pure Land."

20 Avalokitesvara="The Lord who looks down from heaven." The female form taking the place of the male is, no doubt, due to the idea of the woman's being supposed to be the more compassionate nature; just as, too often in the Christian Church, the Blessed Mother has, for a like reason, been made to encroach upon the prerogatives of her Divine Son. Instances are recorded of the Chinese, when conversing with Europeans, giving the name of Kwanyin to the statues of the Blessed Virgin in the Roman Churches. (Davis' The Chinese, chap, xiv.)

21 I have not thought it necessary in this little volume to introduce the subject of Confucianism. Even in China it is less a religion than a system of philosophy—political, social, moral. It may, however, be remarked that the writings of Confucius are highly esteemed in Japan, and that, in the past at any rate, they have had a considerable influence in forming the thought and character of its people. The ethics of Confucius being materialistic, i.e. concerned with the things of this present life, and the Buddhist ethics being mainly spiritualistic, the two mutually supplement each other. The great Confucian Temple at Yeddo was until 1868 the chief University of Japan. Now,—so entirely have the Western systems of education supplanted the teaching of the Chinese sage,—the building has been converted into a Museum.

22 Charcoal-brazier.

23 "The only reason I can ascertain for the constant recurrence of the lotus in Buddhist art and ceremonial is the idea of its being the symbol of purity. Its scent and aspect are alike delightful, and though rooted in mud and slime it abhors all defilement. If, therefore, men would but take it as their model, they would escape all the contamination of this corrupt world. Every man, it is said, has a lotus in his bosom, which will blossom forth if he call in the assistance of Buddha." Unbeaten Tracks in Japan, Vol. i. p. 292.

24 Buddhists believe in the existence of a personal wicked spirit, named Mara, whose object is to solicit men to evil.

25 Cf. the following extract from the speech of the Bishop of Exeter at the Annual Meeting of the C.M.S. 1892:—"If you had been asked to sketch an ideal land, most suitable for Christian Missions, and when itself Christianized more suited for evangelistic work among the nations of the far East, what, I ask, would be the special characteristics of the land and people that you would have desired? Perhaps, first, as Englishmen or Irishmen, you would have said, 'Give us islands, inseparably and for ever united, give us islands which can hold their sea-girt independence, and yet near enough to the mainland to exert influence there.' Such is Japan—the Land of the Rising Sun. 'Give us a hardy race, not untrained in war by land and sea; for a nation of soldiers, when won for Christ, fights best under the banner of the Cross—for we are of the Church militant here on earth: give us brave men;' and such are the descendants of the old Daimios and two-sworded Samurai of Japan. 'Give us an industrial race, not idlers nor loungers, enervated by a luxurious climate, but men who delight in toil, laborious husbandmen, persevering craftsmen, shrewd men of business;' and such are the Japanese agriculturists, who win two harvests a year from their grateful soil—such are the handicraftsmen there, whose work is the envy of Western lands; such are the merchants, who hold their own with us in commerce. 'Give us men of culture, with noble traditions, but not so wedded to the past that they will not grasp the present and salute the future;' and such are the quick-witted, myriad-minded Japanese, who, with a marvellous power of imitation, ever somehow contrive to engraft their own specialities upon those of Western lands. Witness their Constitution, their Parliament, their 30,000 schools in active operation; witness their museums and hospitals; witness their colleges and universities. 'But,' you would also have said, 'give us a race whose women are homespun and refined, courteous and winsome, not tottering on tortured feet, nor immured in zenanas and harems, but who freely mingle in social life, and adorn all they touch;' and such, without controversy, are the women of Japan. Above all, 'give us a reverent and a religious people, who yet are conscious that the religion of their fathers is unsatisfying and unreal, and who are therefore ready to welcome the Christ of God;' and such are the thoughtful races of Japan."

26 See on this subject Study VI in the late Dean Plumptre's The Spirits in Prison. The Christian can scarcely doubt that Gautama has, long ere this, fallen at the feet of the Crucified,—knowing at last the Name whereby he has been saved,—and has heard from the Divine lips the gracious approval, waiting to be bestowed on all men of good-will, of whatever age, of whatever land, who have "worked righteousness," and have faithfully responded to whatever measure of light and opportunity has been accorded them by God.

27 I may observe that the language, not only of the New Testament, but of the Athanasian Creed, was quoted to me in this connexion by a Buddhist priest in Japan. I endeavoured to point out to him,—how far convincingly I cannot say,—what at the present day at least is generally recognized amongst us; that for the Christian Church to warn her own children, in terms the most emphatic just because the most loving, against becoming entangled in the deadly errors prevalent at the time when the Creed was drawn up, is a thing wholly distinct from passing any sentence of eternal condemnation on, or, indeed, expressing any opinion as to the future state of, such as live and die without ever having been brought to a knowledge of the Faith. I added, of course, that any acquaintance with the claims of Christianity is a responsibility for which we believe all will have to give account.

28 I doubt if the speaker, in his long absence from England, quite realized the extent to which, of the last few years, bitterness and intolerance have effaced themselves, at any rate within the limits of the Church of England; or was aware of the marked improvement that is exhibited amongst us in dealing with such matters of controversy as still remain.

29 In the course of a letter appearing in The Christian of April 20, 1893, the Rev. H. Loomis writes, "Let the forty thousand Christians of Japan but dedicate themselves to the welfare of the country in all its relations, and the true new Japan will be founded." But Mr. Loomis himself has placed the total membership of "Protestant Missions" at 35,500, of the Orthodox Church at 20,300, and of the Roman Church at 44,800. To which sixty thousand of these does Mr. Loomis—presumably—refuse the title of "Christian"? and are we justified in acting thus towards any who believe in the Holy Trinity, and have accepted Jesus Christ as the Saviour of the World, Very God and Very Man?

30 Even Mr. Loomis' list does not appear to be exhaustive! The "Plymouth Brethren," e.g., are certainly represented at Tokio.

31 The above is an abridgement of a passage in the Conquests of the Cross (Messrs. Cassell & Co.).

32 In the course of the present year (1893), the Rev. J. McKim has been raised to the American Episcopate in Japan; Dr. Williams continuing to reside at Tokio. It is also announced that two new Anglican Bishops are to be consecrated for the Islands of Kyushu and Yezo respectively. One of these is the Rev. H. Evington, Examining Chaplain to Bishop Bickersteth, who has been connected with the C. M. S. Mission to Japan since 1874.

33 Pastoral Letter to his Clergy, Advent, 1892.

34 Occasional Paper, Guild of St. Paul, Oct. 1893.

THE END