In each case, the word following, or the object, is necessary to the completion of the action expressed in the verb.

All these are called transitive verbs, from the Latin transire, which means to go over. Hence

[Sidenote: Definition.]

203. A transitive verb is one which must have an object to complete its meaning, and to receive the action expressed.

[Sidenote: The nature of intransitive verbs.]

204. Examine the verbs in the following paragraph:—

She sprang up at that thought, and, taking the staff which always guided her steps, she hastened to the neighboring shrine of Isis. Till she had been under the guardianship of the kindly Greek, that staff had sufficed to conduct the poor blind girl from corner to corner of Pompeii.—BULWER

In this there are some verbs unlike those that have been examined. Sprang, or sprang up, expresses action, but it is complete in itself, does not affect an object; hastened is similar in use; had been expresses condition, or state of being, and can have no object; had sufficed means had been sufficient, and from its meaning cannot have an object.

Such verbs are called intransitive (not crossing over). Hence

[Sidenote: Definition.]

205. An intransitive verb is one which is complete in itself, or which is completed by other words without requiring an object.

[Sidenote: Study use, not form, of verbs here.]

206. Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, according to their use in the sentence, It can be said, "The boy walked for two hours," or "The boy walked the horse;" "The rains swelled the river," or "The river swelled because of the rain;" etc.

The important thing to observe is, many words must be distinguished as transitive or intransitive by use, not by form.

207. Also verbs are sometimes made transitive by prepositions. These may be (1) compounded with the verb; or (2) may follow the verb, and be used as an integral part of it: for example,—

Asking her pardon for having withstood her.—SCOTT.

I can wish myself no worse than to have it all to undergo a second time.—KINGSLEY.

A weary gloom in the deep caverns of his eyes, as of a child that has outgrown its playthings.—HAWTHORNE.

It is amusing to walk up and down the pier and look at the countenances passing by.—B. TAYLOR.

He was at once so out of the way, and yet so sensible, that I loved, laughed at, and pitied him.—GOLDSMITH.

My little nurse told me the whole matter, which she had cunningly picked out from her mother.—SWIFT.

Exercises.

(a) Pick out the transitive and the intransitive verbs in the following:—

1. The women and children collected together at a distance.

2. The path to the fountain led through a grassy savanna.

3. As soon as I recovered my senses and strength from so sudden a surprise, I started back out of his reach where I stood to view him; he lay quiet whilst I surveyed him.

4. At first they lay a floor of this kind of tempered mortar on the ground, upon which they deposit a layer of eggs.

5. I ran my bark on shore at one of their landing places, which was a sort of neck or little dock, from which ascended a sloping path or road up to the edge of the meadow, where their nests were; most of them were deserted, and the great thick whitish eggshells lay broken and scattered upon the ground.

6. Accordingly I got everything on board, charged my gun, set sail cautiously, along shore. As I passed by Battle Lagoon, I began to tremble.

7. I seized my gun, and went cautiously from my camp: when I had advanced about thirty yards, I halted behind a coppice of orange trees, and soon perceived two very large bears, which had made their way through the water and had landed in the grove, and were advancing toward me.

(b) Bring up sentences with five transitive and five intransitive verbs.



VOICE, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE.

[Sidenote: Meaning of active voice.]

208. As has been seen, transitive verbs are the only kind that can express action so as to go over to an object. This implies three things,—the agent, or person or thing acting; the verb representing the action; the person or object receiving the act.

In the sentence, "We reached the village of Sorgues by dusk, and accepted the invitation of an old dame to lodge at her inn," these three things are found: the actor, or agent, is expressed by we; the action is asserted by reached and accepted; the things acted upon are village and invitation. Here the subject is represented as doing something. The same word is the subject and the agent. This use of a transitive verb is called the active voice.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

209. The active voice is that form of a verb which represents the subject as acting; or

The active voice is that form of a transitive verb which makes the subject and the agent the same word.

[Sidenote: A question.]

210. Intransitive verbs are always active voice. Let the student explain why.

[Sidenote: Meaning of passive voice.]

211. In the assertion of an action, it would be natural to suppose, that, instead of always representing the subject as acting upon some person or thing, it must often happen that the subject is spoken of as acted upon; and the person or thing acting may or may not be expressed in the sentence: for example,—

All infractions of love and equity in our social relations are speedily punished. They are punished by fear.—EMERSON.

Here the subject infractions does nothing: it represents the object toward which the action of are punished is directed, yet it is the subject of the same verb. In the first sentence the agent is not expressed; in the second, fear is the agent of the same action.

So that in this case, instead of having the agent and subject the same word, we have the object and subject the same word, and the agent may be omitted from the statement of the action.

Passive is from the Latin word patior, meaning to endure or suffer; but in ordinary grammatical use passive means receiving an action.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

212. The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the subject as being acted upon; or—

The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the subject and the object by the same word.

Exercises.

(a) Pick out the verbs in the active and the passive voice:—

1. In the large room some forty or fifty students were walking about while the parties were preparing.

2. This was done by taking off the coat and vest and binding a great thick leather garment on, which reached to the knees.

3. They then put on a leather glove reaching nearly to the shoulder, tied a thick cravat around the throat, and drew on a cap with a large visor.

4. This done, they were walked about the room a short time; their faces all this time betrayed considerable anxiety.

5. We joined the crowd, and used our lungs as well as any.

6. The lakes were soon covered with merry skaters, and every afternoon the banks were crowded with spectators.

7. People were setting up torches and lengthening the rafts which had been already formed.

8. The water was first brought in barrels drawn by horses, till some officer came and opened the fire plug.

9. The exclusive in fashionable life does not see that he excludes himself from enjoyment, in the attempt to appropriate it.

(b) Find sentences with five verbs in the active and five in the passive voice.



MOOD.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

213. The word mood is from the Latin modus, meaning manner, way, method. Hence, when applied to verbs,—

Mood means the manner of conceiving and expressing action or being of some subject.

[Sidenote: The three ways.]

214. There are three chief ways of expressing action or being:—

(1) As a fact; this may be a question, statement, or assumption.

(2) As doubtful, or merely conceived of in the mind.

(3) As urged or commanded.



INDICATIVE MOOD.

[Sidenote: Deals with facts.]

215. The term indicative is from the Latin indicare (to declare, or assert). The indicative represents something as a fact,—

[Sidenote: Affirms or denies.]

(1) By declaring a thing to be true or not to be true; thus,—

Distinction is the consequence, never the object, of a great mind.—ALLSTON.

I do not remember when or by whom I was taught to read; because I cannot and never could recollect a time when I could not read my Bible.—D. WEBSTER.

[Sidenote: Assumed as a fact.]

[Sidenote: Caution.]

(2) By assuming a thing to be true without declaring it to be so. This kind of indicative clause is usually introduced by if (meaning admitting that, granting that, etc.), though, although, etc. Notice that the action is not merely conceived as possible; it is assumed to be a fact: for example,—

If the penalties of rebellion hung over an unsuccessful contest; if America was yet in the cradle of her political existence; if her population little exceeded two millions; if she was without government, without fleets or armies, arsenals or magazines, without military knowledge,—still her citizens had a just and elevated sense of her rights.—A. HAMILTON.

(3) By asking a question to find out some fact; as,—

Is private credit the friend and patron of industry?—HAMILTON.

With respect to novels what shall I say?—N. WEBSTER.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

216 .The indicative mood is that form of a verb which represents a thing as a fact, or inquires about some fact.



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

[Sidenote: Meaning of the word.]

217. Subjunctive means subjoined, or joined as dependent or subordinate to something else.

[Sidenote: This meaning is misleading.]

If its original meaning be closely adhered to, we must expect every dependent clause to have its verb in the subjunctive mood, and every clause not dependent to have its verb in some other mood.

But this is not the case. In the quotation from Hamilton (Sec. 215, 2) several subjoined clauses introduced by if have the indicative mood, and also independent clauses are often found having the verb in the subjunctive mood.

[Sidenote: Cautions.]

Three cautions will be laid down which must be observed by a student who wishes to understand and use the English subjunctive:—

(1) You cannot tell it always by the form of the word. The main difference is, that the subjunctive has no -s as the ending of the present tense, third person singular; as, "If he come."

(2) The fact that its clause is dependent or is introduced by certain words will not be a safe rule to guide you.

(3) The meaning of the verb itself must be keenly studied.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

218. The subjunctive mood is that form or use of the verb which expresses action or being, not as a fact, but as merely conceived of in the mind.

Subjunctive in Independent Clauses.

I. Expressing a Wish.

219. The following are examples of this use:—

Heaven rest her soul!—MOORE.

God grant you find one face there You loved when all was young.—KINGSLEY.

Now tremble dimples on your cheek, Sweet be your lips to taste and speak.—BEDDOES.

Long die thy happy days before thy death.—SHAKESPEARE.

II. A Contingent Declaration or Question.

220. This really amounts to the conclusion, or principal clause, in a sentence, of which the condition is omitted.

Our chosen specimen of the hero as literary man [if we were to choose one] would be this Goethe.—CARLYLE.

I could lie down like a tired child, And weep away the life of care Which I have borne and yet must bear.—SHELLEY.

Most excellent stranger, as you come to the lakes simply to see their loveliness, might it not be as well to ask after the most beautiful road, rather than the shortest?—DE QUINCEY.

Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses.

I. Condition or Supposition.

221. The most common way of representing the action or being as merely thought of, is by putting it into the form of a supposition or condition; as,—

Now, if the fire of electricity and that of lightning be the same, this pasteboard and these scales may represent electrified clouds.—FRANKLIN.

Here no assertion is made that the two things are the same; but, if the reader merely conceives them for the moment to be the same, the writer can make the statement following. Again,—

If it be Sunday [supposing it to be Sunday], the peasants sit on the church steps and con their psalm books.—LONGFELLOW.



STUDY OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.

222. There are three kinds of conditional sentences:—

[Sidenote: Real or true.]

(1) Those in which an assumed or admitted fact is placed before the mind in the form of a condition (see Sec. 215, 2); for example,—

If they were unacquainted with the works of philosophers and poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of God. If their names were not found in the registers of heralds, they were recorded in the Book of Life.—MACAULAY.

[Sidenote: Ideal,—may or may not be true.]

(2) Those in which the condition depends on something uncertain, and may or may not be regarded true, or be fulfilled; as,—

If, in our case, the representative system ultimately fail, popular government must be pronounced impossible.—D. WEBSTER.

If this be the glory of Julius, the first great founder of the Empire, so it is also the glory of Charlemagne, the second founder.—BRYCE.

If any man consider the present aspects of what is called by distinction society, he will see the need of these ethics. —EMERSON.

[Sidenote: Unreal—cannot be true.]

(3) Suppositions contrary to fact, which cannot be true, or conditions that cannot be fulfilled, but are presented only in order to suggest what might be or might have been true; thus,—

If these things were true, society could not hold together. —LOWELL.

Did not my writings produce me some solid pudding, the great deficiency of praise would have quite discouraged me.—FRANKLIN.

Had he for once cast all such feelings aside, and striven energetically to save Ney, it would have cast such an enhancing light over all his glories, that we cannot but regret its absence.—BAYNE.

NOTE.—Conditional sentences are usually introduced by if, though, except, unless, etc.; but when the verb precedes the subject, the conjunction is often omitted: for example, "Were I bidden to say how the highest genius could be most advantageously employed," etc.

Exercise.

In the following conditional clauses, tell whether each verb is indicative or subjunctive, and what kind of condition:—

1. The voice, if he speak to you, is of similar physiognomy, clear, melodious, and sonorous.—CARLYLE.

2. Were you so distinguished from your neighbors, would you, do you think, be any the happier?—THACKERAY.

3. Epaminondas, if he was the man I take him for, would have sat still with joy and peace, if his lot had been mine.—EMERSON.

4. If a damsel had the least smattering of literature, she was regarded as a prodigy.—MACAULAY.

5. I told him, although it were the custom of our learned in Europe to steal inventions from each other,... yet I would take such caution that he should have the honor entire.—SWIFT.

6. If he had reason to dislike him, he had better not have written, since he [Byron] was dead.—N.P. WILLIS.

7. If it were prostrated to the ground by a profane hand, what native of the city would not mourn over its fall?—GAYARRE.

8. But in no case could it be justified, except it be for a failure of the association or union to effect the object for which it was created.—CALHOUN.



II. Subjunctive of Purpose.

223. The subjunctive, especially be, may, might, and should, is used to express purpose, the clause being introduced by that or lest; as,—

It was necessary, he supposed, to drink strong beer, that he might be strong to labor.—FRANKLIN.

I have been the more particular...that you may compare such unlikely beginnings with the figure I have since made there.—Id.

He [Roderick] with sudden impulse that way rode, To tell of what had passed, lest in the strife They should engage with Julian's men.—SOUTHEY.



III. Subjunctive of Result.

224. The subjunctive may represent the result toward which an action tends:—

So many thoughts move to and fro, That vain it were her eyes to close. —COLERIDGE.

So live, that when thy summons comes to join The innumerable caravan... Thou go not, like the quarry-slave at night. —BRYANT.



IV. In Temporal Clauses.

225. The English subjunctive, like the Latin, is sometimes used in a clause to express the time when an action is to take place.

Let it rise, till it meet the sun in his coming.—D. WEBSTER.

Rise up, before it be too late!—HAWTHORNE.

But it will not be long Ere this be thrown aside. —WORDSWORTH.



V. In Indirect Questions.

226. The subjunctive is often found in indirect questions, the answer being regarded as doubtful.

Ask the great man if there be none greater.—EMERSON

What the best arrangement were, none of us could say.—CARLYLE.

Whether it were morning or whether it were afternoon, in her confusion she had not distinctly known.—DE QUINCEY.



VI. Expressing a Wish.

227. After a verb of wishing, the subjunctive is regularly used in the dependent clause.

The transmigiation of souls is no fable. I would it were! —EMERSON.

Bright star! Would I were steadfast as thou art!—KEATS.

I've wished that little isle had wings, And we, within its fairy bowers, Were wafted off to seas unknown. —MOORE.



VII. In a Noun Clause.

[Sidenote: Subject.]

228. The noun clause, in its various uses as subject, object, in apposition, etc., often contains a subjunctive.

The essence of originality is not that it be new.—CARLYLE

[Sidenote: Apposition or logical subject.]

To appreciate the wild and sharp flavors of those October fruits, it is necessary that you be breathing the sharp October or November air.—THOREAU.

[Sidenote: Complement.]

The first merit, that which admits neither substitute nor equivalent, is, that everything be in its place.—COLERIDGE.

[Sidenote: Object.]

As sure as Heaven shall rescue me, I have no thought what men they be.—COLERIDGE.

Some might lament that I were cold.—SHELLEY.

[Sidenote: After verbs of commanding.]

This subjunctive is very frequent after verbs of commanding.

See that there be no traitors in your camp.—TENNYSON.

Come, tell me all that thou hast seen, And look thou tell me true. —SCOTT.

See that thy scepter be heavy on his head.—DE QUINCEY.



VIII. Concessive Clauses.

229. The concession may be expressed—

(1) In the nature of the verb; for example,—

Be the matter how it may, Gabriel Grub was afflicted with rheumatism to the end of his days.—DICKENS.

Be the appeal made to the understanding or the heart, the sentence is the same—that rejects it.—BROUGHAM

(2) By an indefinite relative word, which may be

(a) Pronoun.

Whatever betide, we'll turn aside, And see the Braes of Yarrow. —WORDSWORTH.

(b) Adjective.

That hunger of applause, of cash, or whatsoever victual it may be, is the ultimate fact of man's life.—CARLYLE.

(c) Adverb.

Wherever he dream under mountain or stream, The spirit he loves remains. —SHELLEY.



Prevalence of the Subjunctive Mood.

230. As shown by the wide range of literature from which these examples are selected, the subjunctive is very much used in literary English, especially by those who are artistic and exact in the expression of their thought.

At the present day, however, the subjunctive is becoming less and less used. Very many of the sentences illustrating the use of the subjunctive mood could be replaced by numerous others using the indicative to express the same thoughts.

The three uses of the subjunctive now most frequent are, to express a wish, a concession, and condition contrary to fact.

In spoken English, the subjunctive were is much used in a wish or a condition contrary to fact, but hardly any other subjunctive forms are.

It must be remembered, though, that many of the verbs in the subjunctive have the same form as the indicative. Especially is this true of unreal conditions in past time; for example,—

Were we of open sense as the Greeks were, we had found [should have found] a poem here.—CARLYLE.



IMPERATIVE MOOD.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

231. The imperative mood is the form of the verb used in direct commands, entreaties, or requests.

[Sidenote: Usually second person.]

232. The imperative is naturally used mostly with the second person, since commands are directed to a person addressed.

(1) Command.

Call up the shades of Demosthenes and Cicero to vouch for your words; point to their immortal works.—J.Q. ADAMS.

Honor all men; love all men; fear none.—CHANNING.

(2) Entreaty.

Oh, from these sterner aspects of thy face Spare me and mine, nor let us need the wrath Of the mad unchained elements. —BRYANT.

(3) Request.

"Hush! mother," whispered Kit. "Come along with me."—DICKENS

Tell me, how was it you thought of coming here?—Id.

[Sidenote: Sometimes with first person in the plural.]

But the imperative may be used with the plural of the first person. Since the first person plural person is not really I + I, but I + you, or I + they, etc., we may use the imperative with we in a command, request, etc., to you implied in it. This is scarcely ever found outside of poetry.

Part we in friendship from your land, And, noble earl, receive my hand. —SCOTT.

Then seek we not their camp—for there The silence dwells of my despair. —CAMPBELL.

Break we our watch up.—SHAKESPEARE.

Usually this is expressed by let with the objective: "Let us go." And the same with the third person: "Let him be accursed."

Exercises on the Moods.

(a) Tell the mood of each verb in these sentences, and what special use it is of that mood:—

1. Wherever the standard of freedom and independence has been or shall be unfurled, there will her heart and her prayers be.

2. Mark thou this difference, child of earth! While each performs his part, Not all the lip can speak is worth The silence of the heart.

3. Oh, that I might be admitted to thy presence! that mine were the supreme delight of knowing thy will!

4. 'Twere worth ten years of peaceful life, One glance at their array!

5. Whatever inconvenience ensue, nothing is to be preferred before justice.

6. The vigorous sun would catch it up at eve And use it for an anvil till he had filled The shelves of heaven with burning thunderbolts.

7. Meet is it changes should control Our being, lest we rust in ease.

8. Quoth she, "The Devil take the goose, And God forget the stranger!"

9. Think not that I speak for your sakes.

10. "Now tread we a measure!" said young Lochinvar.

11. Were that a just return? Were that Roman magnanimity?

12. Well; how he may do his work, whether he do it right or wrong, or do it at all, is a point which no man in the world has taken the pains to think of.

13. He is, let him live where else he like, in what pomps and prosperities he like, no literary man.

14. Could we one day complete the immense figure which these flagrant points compose!

15. "Oh, then, my dear madam," cried he, "tell me where I may find my poor, ruined, but repentant child."

16. That sheaf of darts, will it not fall unbound, Except, disrobed of thy vain earthly vaunt, Thou bring it to be blessed where saints and angels haunt?

17. Forget thyself to marble, till With a sad leaden downward cast Thou fix them on the earth as fast.

18. He, as though an instrument, Blew mimic hootings to the silent owls, That they might answer him.

19. From the moss violets and jonquils peep, And dart their arrowy odor through the brain, Till you might faint with that delicious pain.

20. That a man parade his doubt, and get to imagine that debating and logic is the triumph and true work of what intellect he has; alas! this is as if you should overturn the tree.

21. The fat earth feed thy branchy root That under deeply strikes! The northern morning o'er thee shoot, High up in silver spikes!

22. Though abyss open under abyss, and opinion displace opinion, all are at last contained in the Eternal cause.

23. God send Rome one such other sight!

24. "Mr. Marshall," continued Old Morgan, "see that no one mentions the United States to the prisoner."

25. If there is only one woman in the nation who claims the right to vote, she ought to have it.

26. Though he were dumb, it would speak.

27. Meantime, whatever she did,—whether it were in display of her own matchless talents, or whether it were as one member of a general party,—nothing could exceed the amiable, kind, and unassuming deportment of Mrs. Siddons.

28. It makes a great difference to the force of any sentence whether there be a man behind it or no.

(b) Find sentences with five verbs in the indicative mood, five in the subjunctive, five in the imperative.

TENSE.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

233. Tense means time. The tense of a verb is the form or use indicating the time of an action or being.

[Sidenote: Tenses in English.]

Old English had only two tenses,—the present tense, which represented present and future time; and the past tense. We still use the present for the future in such expressions as, "I go away to-morrow;" "If he comes, tell him to wait."

But English of the present day not only has a tense for each of the natural time divisions,—present, past, and future,—but has other tenses to correspond with those of highly inflected languages, such as Latin and Greek.

The distinct inflections are found only in the present and past tenses, however: the others are compounds of verbal forms with various helping verbs, called auxiliaries; such as be, have, shall, will.

[Sidenote: The tenses in detail.]

234. Action or being may be represented as occurring in present, past, or future time, by means of the present, the past, and the future tense. It may also be represented as finished in present or past or future time by means of the present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses.

Not only is this so: there are what are called definite forms of these tenses, showing more exactly the time of the action or being. These make the English speech even more exact than other languages, as will be shown later on, in the conjugations.

PERSON AND NUMBER.

235. The English verb has never had full inflections for number and person, as the classical languages have.

When the older pronoun thou was in use, there was a form of the verb to correspond to it, or agree with it, as, "Thou walkest," present; "Thou walkedst," past; also, in the third person singular, a form ending in -eth, as, "It is not in man that walketh, to direct his steps."

But in ordinary English of the present day there is practically only one ending for person and number. This is the third person, singular number; as, "He walks;" and this only in the present tense indicative. This is important in questions of agreement when we come to syntax.



CONJUGATION.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

236. Conjugation is the regular arrangement of the forms of the verb in the various voices, moods, tenses, persons, and numbers.

In classical languages, conjugation means joining together the numerous endings to the stem of the verb; but in English, inflections are so few that conjugation means merely the exhibition of the forms and the different verb phrases that express the relations of voice, mood, tense, etc.

[Sidenote: Few forms.]

237. Verbs in modern English have only four or five forms; for example, walk has walk, walks, walked, walking, sometimes adding the old forms walkest, walkedst, walketh. Such verbs as choose have five,—choose, chooses, chose, choosing, chosen (old, choosest, chooseth, chosest).

The verb be has more forms, since it is composed of several different roots,—am, are, is, were, been, etc.

238. INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB BE.

Indicative Mood.

PRESENT TENSE. PAST TENSE. Singular Plural Singular Plural 1. I am We are 1. I was We were 2. You are You are 2. You were You were (thou art) (thou wast, wert) 3. [He] is [They] are 3. [He] was [They were]

Subjunctive Mood.

PRESENT TENSE. PAST TENSE. Singular Plural Singular Plural 1. I be We be 1. I were We were 2. You (thou) be You be 2. You were You were (thou wert) 3. [He] be [They] be 3. [He] were [They] were

Imperative Mood.

PRESENT TENSE, Singular and Plural, Be.

[Sidenote: Remarks on the verb be.]

239. This conjugation is pieced out with three different roots: (1) am, is; (2) was, were; (3) be.

Instead of the plural are, Old English had beoth and sind or sindon, same as the German sind. Are is supposed to have come from the Norse language.

The old indicative third person plural be is sometimes found in literature, though it is usually a dialect form; for example,—

Where be the sentries who used to salute as the Royal chariots drove in and out?—THACKERAY

Where be the gloomy shades, and desolate mountains?—WHITTIER

[Sidenote: Uses of be.]

240. The forms of the verb be have several uses:—

(1) As principal verbs.

The light that never was on sea and land.—WORDSWORTH.

(2) As auxiliary verbs, in four ways,—

(a) With verbal forms in -ing (imperfect participle) to form the definite tenses.

Broadswords are maddening in the rear,—Each broadsword bright was brandishing like beam of light.—SCOTT.

(b) With the past participle in -ed, -en, etc., to form the passive voice.

By solemn vision and bright silver dream, His infancy was nurtured. —SHELLEY.

(c) With past participle of intransitive verbs, being equivalent to the present perfect and past perfect tenses active; as,

When we are gone From every object dear to mortal sight. —WORDSWORTH

We drank tea, which was now become an occasional banquet.—GOLDSMITH.

(d) With the infinitive, to express intention, obligation, condition, etc.; thus,

It was to have been called the Order of Minerva.—THACKERAY.

Ingenuity and cleverness are to be rewarded by State prizes.—Id.

If I were to explain the motion of a body falling to the ground.—BURKE

241. INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB CHOOSE.

Indicative Mood.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural.

1. I choose We choose 2. You choose You choose 3. [He] chooses [They] choose

PAST TENSE.

Singular. Plural.

1. I chose We chose 2. You chose You chose 3. [He] chose [They] chose

Subjunctive Mood.

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular. Plural.

1. I choose We choose 2. You choose You choose 3. [He] choose [They] choose

PAST TENSE.

Singular. Plural.

1. I chose We chose 2. You chose You chose 3. [He] chose [They] chose

Imperative Mood.

PRESENT TENSE, Singular and Plural, Choose.

FULL CONJUGATION OF THE VERB CHOOSE.

[Sidenote: Machinery of a verb in the voices, tenses, etc.]

242. In addition to the above inflected forms, there are many periphrastic or compound forms, made up of auxiliaries with the infinitives and participles. Some of these have been indicated in Sec. 240, (2).

The ordinary tenses yet to be spoken of are made up as follows:—

(1) Future tense, by using shall and will with the simple or root form of the verb; as, "I shall be," "He will choose."

(2) Present perfect, past perfect, future perfect, tenses, by placing have, had, and shall (or will) have before the past participle of any verb; as, "I have gone" (present perfect), "I had gone" (past perfect), "I shall have gone" (future perfect).

(3) The definite form of each tense, by using auxiliaries with the imperfect participle active; as, "I am running," "They had been running."

(4) The passive forms, by using the forms of the verb be before the past participle of verbs; as, "I was chosen," "You are chosen."

243. The following scheme will show how rich our language is in verb phrases to express every variety of meaning. Only the third person, singular number, of each tense, will be given.

ACTIVE VOICE.

Indicative Mood.

Present. He chooses. Present definite. He is choosing. Past. He chose. Past definite. He was choosing. Future. He will choose. Future definite. He will he choosing. Present perfect. He has chosen. Present perfect definite. He has been choosing. Past perfect. He had chosen. Past perfect definite. He had been choosing. Future perfect. He will have chosen. Future perfect definite. He will have been choosing.

Subjunctive Mood.

Present. [If, though, he choose. Present definite. lest, etc.] he be choosing. Past. " he chose (or were to choose). Past definite. " he were choosing (or were to be choosing). Present perfect. " he have chosen. Present perfect definite. " he have been choosing. Past perfect. " Same as indicative. Past perfect definite. " " "



Imperative Mood.

Present. (2d per.) Choose. Present definite. " Be choosing.

NOTE.—Since participles and infinitives are not really verbs, but verbals, they will be discussed later (Sec. 262).

PASSIVE VOICE.

Indicative Mood.

Present. He is chosen. Present definite. He is being chosen. Past. He was chosen. Past definite. He was being chosen. Future. He will be chosen. Future definite. None. Present perfect. He has been chosen. Present perfect definite. None. Past perfect. He had been chosen. Past perfect definite. None. Future perfect. He will have been chosen. Future perfect definite. None.

Subjunctive Mood.

Present.. [If, though, he be chosen. Present definite. lest, etc.] None. Past. " he were chosen (or were to be chosen). Past definite. " he were being chosen. Present perfect. " he have been chosen. Present perfect definite. " None. Past Perfect. " he had been chosen. Past perfect definite. " None.

Imperative Mood.

Present tense. (2d per.) Be chosen.

Also, in affirmative sentences, the indicative present and past tenses have emphatic forms made up of do and did with the infinitive or simple form; as, "He does strike," "He did strike."

[Note to Teacher.—This table is not to be learned now; if learned at all, it should be as practice work on strong and weak verb forms. Exercises should be given, however, to bring up sentences containing such of these conjugation forms as the pupil will find readily in literature.]



VERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FORM.

[Sidenote: Kinds.]

244. According to form, verbs are strong or weak.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

A strong verb forms its past tense by changing the vowel of the present tense form, but adds no ending; as, run, ran; drive, drove.

A weak verb always adds an ending to the present to form the past tense, and may or may not change the vowel: as, beg, begged; lay, laid; sleep, slept; catch, caught.

245. TABLE OF STRONG VERBS.

NOTE. Some of these also have weak forms, which are in parentheses

Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Participle.

abide abode abode arise arose arisen awake awoke (awaked) awoke (awaked) bear bore {borne (active) {born (passive) begin began begun behold beheld beheld bid bade, bid bidden, bid bind bound {bound, {[adj. bounden] bite bit bitten, bit blow blew blown break broke broken chide chid chidden, chid choose chose chosen cleave clove, clave (cleft) cloven (cleft) climb [clomb] climbed climbed cling clung clung come came come crow crew (crowed) (crowed) dig dug dug do did done draw drew drawn drink drank {drunk, drank {[adj. drunken] drive drove driven eat ate, eat eaten, eat fall fell fallen fight fought fought find found found fling flung flung fly flew flown forbear forbore forborne forget forgot forgotten forsake forsook forsaken freeze froze frozen get got got [gotten] give gave given go went gone grind ground ground grow grew grown hang hung (hanged) hung (hanged) hold held held know knew known lie lay lain ride rode ridden ring rang rung run ran run see saw seen shake shook shaken shear shore (sheared) shorn (sheared) shine shone shone shoot shot shot shrink shrank or shrunk shrunk shrive shrove shriven sing sang or sung sung sink sank or sunk sunk [adj. sunken] sit sat [sate] sat slay slew slain slide slid slidden, slid sling slung slung slink slunk slunk smite smote smitten speak spoke spoken spin spun spun spring sprang, sprung sprung stand stood stood stave stove (staved) (staved) steal stole stolen stick stuck stuck sting stung stung stink stunk, stank stunk stride strode stridden strike struck struck, stricken string strung strung strive strove striven swear swore sworn swim swam or swum swum swing swung swung take took taken tear tore torn thrive throve (thrived) thriven (thrived) throw threw thrown tread trod trodden, trod wear wore worn weave wove woven win won won wind wound wound wring wrung wrung write wrote written



Remarks on Certain Verb Forms.

246. Several of the perfect participles are seldom used except as adjectives: as, "his bounden duty," "the cloven hoof," "a drunken wretch," "a sunken snag." Stricken is used mostly of diseases; as, "stricken with paralysis."

The verb bear (to bring forth) is peculiar in having one participle (borne) for the active, and another (born) for the passive. When it means to carry or to endure, borne is also a passive.

The form clomb is not used in prose, but is much used in vulgar English, and sometimes occurs in poetry; as,—

Thou hast clomb aloft.—WORDSWORTH

Or pine grove whither woodman never clomb.—COLERIDGE

The forms of cleave are really a mixture of two verbs,—one meaning to adhere or cling; the other, to split. The former used to be cleave, cleaved, cleaved; and the latter, cleave, clave or clove, cloven. But the latter took on the weak form cleft in the past tense and past participle,—as (from Shakespeare), "O Hamlet! thou hast cleft my heart in twain,"—while cleave (to cling) sometimes has clove, as (from Holmes), "The old Latin tutor clove to Virgilius Maro." In this confusion of usage, only one set remains certain,—cleave, cleft, cleft (to split).

Crew is seldom found in present-day English.

Not a cock crew, nor a dog barked.—IRVING.

Our cock, which always crew at eleven, now told us it was time for repose.—GOLDSMITH.

Historically, drunk is the one correct past participle of the verb drink. But drunk is very much used as an adjective, instead of drunken (meaning intoxicated); and, probably to avoid confusion with this, drank is a good deal used as a past participle: thus,—

We had each drank three times at the well.—B. TAYLOR.

This liquor was generally drank by Wood and Billings. —THACKERAY.

Sometimes in literary English, especially in that of an earlier period, it is found that the verb eat has the past tense and past participle eat (et), instead of ate and eaten; as, for example,—

It ate the food it ne'er had eat.—COLERIDGE.

How fairy Mab the junkets eat.—MILTON.

The island princes overbold Have eat our substance.—TENNYSON.

This is also very much used in spoken and vulgar English.

The form gotten is little used, got being the preferred form of past participle as well as past tense. One example out of many is,—

We had all got safe on shore.—DE FOE.

Hung and hanged both are used as the past tense and past participle of hang; but hanged is the preferred form when we speak of execution by hanging; as,

The butler was hanged.—Bible.

The verb sat is sometimes spelled sate; for example,—

Might we have sate and talked where gowans blow.—WORDSWORTH.

He sate him down, and seized a pen.—BYRON.

"But I sate still and finished my plaiting."—KINGSLEY.

Usually shear is a weak verb. Shorn and shore are not commonly used: indeed, shore is rare, even in poetry.

This heard Geraint, and grasping at his sword, Shore thro' the swarthy neck.—TENNYSON.

Shorn is used sometimes as a participial adjective, as "a shorn lamb," but not much as a participle. We usually say, "The sheep were sheared" instead of "The sheep were shorn."

Went is borrowed as the past tense of go from the old verb wend, which is seldom used except in poetry; for example,—

If, maiden, thou would'st wend with me To leave both tower and town.—SCOTT.

Exercises.

(a) From the table (Sec. 245), make out lists of verbs having the same vowel changes as each of the following:—

1. Fall, fell, fallen.

2. Begin, began, begun.

3. Find, found, found.

4. Give, gave, given.

5. Drive, drove, driven.

6. Throw, threw, thrown.

7. Fling, flung, flung.

8. Break, broke, broken.

9. Shake, shook, shaken.

10. Freeze, froze, frozen.

(b) Find sentences using ten past-tense forms of strong verbs.

(c) Find sentences using ten past participles of strong verbs.

[To the Teacher,—These exercises should be continued for several lessons, for full drill on the forms.]



DEFECTIVE STRONG VERBS.

247. There are several verbs which are lacking in one or more principal parts. They are as follows:—

PRESENT. PAST. PRESENT. PAST. may might [ought] ought can could shall should [must] must will would

248. May is used as either indicative or subjunctive, as it has two meanings. It is indicative when it expresses permission, or, as it sometimes does, ability, like the word can: it is subjunctive when it expresses doubt as to the reality of an action, or when it expresses wish, purpose, etc.

[Sidenote: Indicative Use: Permission. Ability.]

If I may lightly employ the Miltonic figure, "far off his coming shines."—WINIER.

A stripling arm might sway A mass no host could raise.—SCOTT.

His superiority none might question.—CHANNING.

[Sidenote: Subjunctive use.]

In whatever manner the separate parts of a constitution may be arranged, there is one general principle, etc.—PAINE.

[Sidenote: (See also Sec. 223.)]

And from her fair and unpolluted flesh May violets spring! —SHAKESPEARE.

249. Can is used in the indicative only. The l in could did not belong there originally, but came through analogy with should and would. Could may be subjunctive, as in Sec. 220.

250. Must is historically a past-tense form, from the obsolete verb motan, which survives in the sentence, "So mote it be." Must is present or past tense, according to the infinitive used.

All must concede to him a sublime power of action.—CHANNING

This, of course, must have been an ocular deception.—HAWTHORNE.

251. The same remarks apply to ought, which is historically the past tense of the verb owe. Like must, it is used only in the indicative mood; as,

The just imputations on our own faith ought first to be removed.... Have we valuable territories and important posts...which ought long since to have been surrendered?—A. HAMILTON.

It will be noticed that all the other defective verbs take the pure infinitive without to, while ought always has to.

Shall and Will.

252. The principal trouble in the use of shall and will is the disposition, especially in the United States, to use will and would, to the neglect of shall and should, with pronouns of the first person; as, "I think I will go."

[Sidenote: Uses of shall and should.]

The following distinctions must be observed:—

(1) With the FIRST PERSON, shall and should are used,—

[Sidenote: Futurity and questions—first person.]

(a) In making simple statements or predictions about future time; as,—

The time will come full soon, I shall be gone.—L.C. MOULTON.

(b) In questions asking for orders, or implying obligation or authority resting upon the subject; as,—

With respect to novels, what shall I say?—N. WEBSTER.

How shall I describe the luster which at that moment burst upon my vision?—C. BROCKDEN BROWN.

[Sidenote: Second and third persons.]

(2) With the SECOND AND THIRD PERSONS, shall and should are used,—

(a) To express authority, in the form of command, promise, or confident prediction. The following are examples:—

Never mind, my lad, whilst I live thou shalt never want a friend to stand by thee.—IRVING.

They shall have venison to eat, and corn to hoe.—COOPER.

The sea shall crush thee; yea, the ponderous wave up the loose beach shall grind and scoop thy grave.—THAXTER.

She should not walk, he said, through the dust and heat of the noonday; Nay, she should ride like a queen, not plod along like a peasant.—LONGFELLOW.

(b) In indirect quotations, to express the same idea that the original speaker put forth (i.e., future action); for example,—

He declares that he shall win the purse from you.—BULWER.

She rejects his suit with scorn, but assures him that she shall make great use of her power over him.—MACAULAY.

Fielding came up more and more bland and smiling, with the conviction that he should win in the end.—A. LARNED.

Those who had too presumptuously concluded that they should pass without combat were something disconcerted.—SCOTT.

(c) With direct questions of the second person, when the answer expected would express simple futurity; thus,—

"Should you like to go to school at Canterbury?"—DICKENS.

[Sidenote: First, second and third persons.]

(3) With ALL THREE PERSONS,—

(a) Should is used with the meaning of obligation, and is equivalent to ought.

I never was what I should be.—H. JAMES, JR.

Milton! thou should'st be living at this hour.—WORDSWORTH.

He should not flatter himself with the delusion that he can make or unmake the reputation of other men.—WINTER.

(b) Shall and should are both used in dependent clauses of condition, time, purpose, etc.; for example,—

When thy mind Shall be a mansion for all stately forms.—WORDSWORTH.

Suppose this back-door gossip should be utterly blundering and untrue, would any one wonder?—THACKERAY.

Jealous lest the sky should have a listener.—BYRON.

If thou should'st ever come by chance or choice to Modena.—ROGERS.

If I should be where I no more can hear thy voice.—WORDSWORTH.

That accents and looks so winning should disarm me of my resolution, was to be expected.—C.B. BROWN.

253. Will and would are used as follows:—

[Sidenote: Authority as to future action—first person.]

(1) With the FIRST PERSON, will and would are used to express determination as to the future, or a promise; as, for example,—

I will go myself now, and will not return until all is finished.—CABLE.

And promised...that I would do him justice, as the sole inventor.—SWIFT.

[Sidenote: Disguising a command.]

(2) With the SECOND PERSON, will is used to express command. This puts the order more mildly, as if it were merely expected action; as,—

Thou wilt take the skiff, Roland, and two of my people,... and fetch off certain plate and belongings.—SCOTT.

You will proceed to Manassas at as early a moment as practicable, and mark on the grounds the works, etc.—War Records.

[Sidenote: Mere futurity.]

(3) With both SECOND AND THIRD PERSONS, will and would are used to express simple futurity, action merely expected to occur; for example,—

All this will sound wild and chimerical.—BURKE.

She would tell you that punishment is the reward of the wicked.—LANDOR.

When I am in town, you'll always have somebody to sit with you. To be sure, so you will.—DICKENS.

(4) With FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD PERSONS, would is used to express a wish,—the original meaning of the word will; for example,—

[Sidenote: Subject I omitted: often so.]

Would that a momentary emanation from thy glory would visit me!—C.B. BROWN.

Thine was a dangerous gift, when thou wast born, The gift of Beauty. Would thou hadst it not.—ROGERS

It shall be gold if thou wilt, but thou shalt answer to me for the use of it.—SCOTT.

What wouldst thou have a good great man obtain?—COLERIDGE.

(5) With the THIRD PERSON, will and would often denote an action as customary, without regard to future time; as,

They will go to Sunday schools, through storms their brothers are afraid of.... They will stand behind a table at a fair all day.—HOLMES

On a slight suspicion, they would cut off the hands of numbers of the natives, for punishment or intimidation.—BANCROFT.

In this stately chair would he sit, and this magnificent pipe would he smoke, shaking his right knee with a constant motion.—IRVING.

Conjugation of Shall and Will as Auxiliaries (with Choose).

254. To express simply expected action:—

ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE.

Singular. Singular.

1. I shall choose. I shall be chosen. 2. You will choose. You will be chosen. 3. [He] will choose. [He] will be chosen.

Plural. Plural.

1. We shall choose. We shall be chosen. 2. You will choose. You will be chosen. 3. [They] will choose. [They] will be chosen.

To express determination, promise, etc.:—

ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE.

Singular. Singular.

1. I will choose. I will be chosen. 2. You shall choose. You shall be chosen. 3. [He] shall choose. [He] shall be chosen.

ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE.

Plural. Plural.

1. We will choose. 1. We will be chosen. 2. You shall choose. 2. You shall be chosen. 3. [They] shall choose. 3. [They] shall be chosen.

Exercises on Shall and Will.

(a) From Secs. 252 and 253, write out a summary or outline of the various uses of shall and will.

(b) Examine the following sentences, and justify the use of shall and will, or correct them if wrongly used:—

1. Thou art what I would be, yet only seem.

2. We would be greatly mistaken if we thought so.

3. Thou shalt have a suit, and that of the newest cut; the wardrobe keeper shall have orders to supply you.

4. "I shall not run," answered Herbert stubbornly.

5. He informed us, that in the course of another day's march we would reach the prairies on the banks of the Grand Canadian.

6. What shall we do with him? This is the sphinx-like riddle which we must solve if we would not be eaten.

7. Will not our national character be greatly injured? Will we not be classed with the robbers and destroyers of mankind?

8. Lucy stood still, very anxious, and wondering whether she should see anything alive.

9. I would be overpowered by the feeling of my disgrace.

10. No, my son; whatever cash I send you is yours: you will spend it as you please, and I have nothing to say.

11. But I will doubtless find some English person of whom to make inquiries.

12. Without having attended to this, we will be at a loss to understand several passages in the classics.

13. "I am a wayfarer," the stranger said, "and would like permission to remain with you a little while."

14. The beast made a sluggish movement, then, as if he would have more of the enchantment, stirred her slightly with his muzzle.

WEAK VERBS.

255. Those weak verbs which add -d or -ed to form the past tense and past participle, and have no change of vowel, are so easily recognized as to need no special treatment. Some of them are already given as secondary forms of the strong verbs.

But the rest, which may be called irregular weak verbs, need some attention and explanation.

256. The irregular weak verbs are divided into two classes,—

[Sidenote: The two classes of irregular weak verbs.]

(1) Those which retain the -d or -t in the past tense, with some change of form for the past tense and past participle.

(2) Those which end in -d or -t, and have lost the ending which formerly was added to this.

The old ending to verbs of Class II. was -de or -te; as,—

This worthi man ful wel his wit bisette [used].—CHAUCER.

Of smale houndes hadde she, that sche fedde With rosted flessh, or mylk and wastel breed.—Id.

This ending has now dropped off, leaving some weak verbs with the same form throughout: as set, set, set; put, put, put.

257. Irregular Weak Verbs.—Class I.

Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Participle.

bereave bereft, bereave bereft, bereaved beseech besought besought burn burned, burnt burnt buy bought bought catch caught caught creep crept crept deal dealt dealt dream dreamt, dreamed dreamt, dreamed dwell dwelt dwelt feel felt felt flee fled fled have had had (once haved) hide hid hidden, hid keep kept kept kneel knelt knelt lay laid laid lean leaned, leant leaned, leant leap leaped, leapt leaped, leapt leave left left lose lost lost make made (once maked) made mean meant meant pay paid paid pen [inclose] penned, pen penned, pent say said said seek sought sought sell sold sold shoe shod shod sleep slept slept spell spelled, spelt spelt spill spilt spilt stay staid, stayed staid, stayed sweep swept swept teach taught taught tell told told think thought thought weep wept wept work worked, wrought worked, wrought

258. Irregular Weak Verbs.—Class II.

Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Participle.

bend bent, bended bent, bended bleed bled bled breed bred bred build built built cast cast cast cost cost cost feed fed fed gild gilded, gilt gilded, gilt gird girt, girded girt, girded hit hit hit hurt hurt hurt knit knit, knitted knit, knitted lead led led let let let light lighted, lit lighted, lit meet met met put put put quit quit, quitted quit, quitted read read read rend rent rent rid rid rid send sent sent set set set shed shed shed shred shred shred shut shut shut slit slit slit speed sped sped spend spent spent spit spit [obs. spat] spit [obs. spat] split split split spread spread spread sweat sweat sweat thrust thrust thrust wed wed, wedded wed, wedded wet wet, wetted wet, wetted

[Sidenote: Tendency to phonetic spelling.]

250. There seems to be in Modern English a growing tendency toward phonetic spelling in the past tense and past participle of weak verbs. For example, -ed, after the verb bless, has the sound of t: hence the word is often written blest. So with dipt, whipt, dropt, tost, crost, drest, prest, etc. This is often seen in poetry, and is increasing in prose.

Some Troublesome Verbs.

[Sidenote: Lie and lay in use and meaning.]

260. Some sets of verbs are often confused by young students, weak forms being substituted for correct, strong forms.

Lie and lay need close attention. These are the forms:—

Present Tense. Past Tense. Pres. Participle. Past Participle.

1. Lie lay lying lain 2. Lay laid laying laid

The distinctions to be observed are as follows:—

(1) Lie, with its forms, is regularly intransitive as to use. As to meaning, lie means to rest, to recline, to place one's self in a recumbent position; as, "There lies the ruin."

(2) Lay, with its forms, is always transitive as to use. As to meaning, lay means to put, to place a person or thing in position; as, "Slowly and sadly we laid him down." Also lay may be used without any object expressed, but there is still a transitive meaning; as in the expressions, "to lay up for future use," "to lay on with the rod," "to lay about him lustily."

[Sidenote: Sit and set.]

261. Sit and set have principal parts as follows:—

Present Tense. Past Tense. Pres. Participle. Past Participle.

1. Sit sat sitting sat 2. Set set setting set

Notice these points of difference between the two verbs:—

(1) Sit, with its forms, is always intransitive in use. In meaning, sit signifies (a) to place one's self on a seat, to rest; (b) to be adjusted, to fit; (c) to cover and warm eggs for hatching, as, "The hen sits."

(2) Set, with its forms, is always transitive in use when it has the following meanings: (a) to put or place a thing or person in position, as "He set down the book;" (b) to fix or establish, as, "He sets a good example."

Set is intransitive when it means (a) to go down, to decline, as, "The sun has set;" (b) to become fixed or rigid, as, "His eyes set in his head because of the disease;" (c) in certain idiomatic expressions, as, for example, "to set out," "to set up in business," "to set about a thing," "to set to work," "to set forward," "the tide sets in," "a strong wind set in," etc.

Exercise.

Examine the forms of lie, lay, sit and set in these sentences; give the meaning of each, and correct those used wrongly.

1. If the phenomena which lie before him will not suit his purpose, all history must be ransacked.

2. He sat with his eyes fixed partly on the ghost and partly on Hamlet, and with his mouth open.

3. The days when his favorite volume set him upon making wheelbarrows and chairs,... can never again be the realities they were.

4. To make the jacket sit yet more closely to the body, it was gathered at the middle by a broad leathern belt.

5. He had set up no unattainable standard of perfection.

6. For more than two hundred years his bones lay undistinguished.

7. The author laid the whole fault on the audience.

8. Dapple had to lay down on all fours before the lads could bestride him.

9. And send'st him...to his gods where happy lies His petty hope in some near port or bay, And dashest him again to earth:—there let him lay.

10. Achilles is the swift-footed when he is sitting still.

11. It may be laid down as a general rule, that history begins in novel, and ends in essay.

12. I never took off my clothes, but laid down in them.



VERBALS.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

262. Verbals are words that express action in a general way, without limiting the action to any time, or asserting it of any subject.

[Sidenote: Kinds.]

Verbals may be participles, infinitives, or gerunds.

PARTICIPLES.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

263. Participles are adjectival verbals; that is, they either belong to some substantive by expressing action in connection with it, or they express action, and directly modify a substantive, thus having a descriptive force. Notice these functions.

[Sidenote: Pure participle in function.]

1. At length, wearied by his cries and agitations, and not knowing how to put an end to them, he addressed the animal as if he had been a rational being.—DWIGHT.

Here wearied and knowing belong to the subject he, and express action in connection with it, but do not describe.

[Sidenote: Express action and also describe.]

2. Another name glided into her petition—it was that of the wounded Christian, whom fate had placed in the hands of bloodthirsty men, his avowed enemies.—SCOTT.

Here wounded and avowed are participles, but are used with the same adjectival force that bloodthirsty is (see Sec. 143, 4).

Participial adjectives have been discussed in Sec. 143 (4), but we give further examples for the sake of comparison and distinction.

[Sidenote: Fossil participles as adjectives.]

3. As learned a man may live in a cottage or a college commmon-room.—THACKERAY

4. Not merely to the soldier are these campaigns interesting —BAYNE.

5. How charming is divine philosophy!—MILTON.

[Sidenote: Forms of the participle.]

264. Participles, in expressing action, may be active or passive, incomplete (or imperfect), complete (perfect or past), and perfect definite.

They cannot be divided into tenses (present, past, etc.), because they have no tense of their own, but derive their tense from the verb on which they depend; for example,—

1. He walked conscientiously through the services of the day, fulfilling every section the minutest, etc.—DE QUINCEY.

Fulfilling has the form to denote continuance, but depends on the verb walked, which is past tense.

2. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, Comes dancing from the East.—MILTON.

Dancing here depends on a verb in the present tense.

265. PARTICIPLES OF THE VERB CHOOSE.

ACTIVE VOICE.

Imperfect. Choosing. Perfect. Having chosen. Perfect definite. Having been choosing.

PASSIVE VOICE.

Imperfect. None Perfect. Chosen, being chosen, having been chosen. Perfect definite. None.

Exercise.

Pick out the participles, and tell whether active or passive, imperfect, perfect, or perfect definite. If pure participles, tell to what word they belong; if adjectives, tell what words they modify.

1. The change is a large process, accomplished within a large and corresponding space, having, perhaps, some central or equatorial line, but lying, like that of our earth, between certain tropics, or limits widely separated.

2. I had fallen under medical advice the most misleading that it is possible to imagine.

3. These views, being adopted in a great measure from my mother, were naturally the same as my mother's.

4. Endowed with a great command over herself, she soon obtained an uncontrolled ascendency over her people.

5. No spectacle was more adapted to excite wonder.

6. Having fully supplied the demands of nature in this respect, I returned to reflection on my situation.

7. Three saplings, stripped of their branches and bound together at their ends, formed a kind of bedstead.

8. This all-pervading principle is at work in our system,—the creature warring against the creating power.

9. Perhaps I was too saucy and provoking.

10. Nothing of the kind having been done, and the principles of this unfortunate king having been distorted,... try clemency.



INFINITIVES.

266. Infinitives, like participles, have no tense. When active, they have an indefinite, an imperfect, a perfect, and a perfect definite form; and when passive, an indefinite and a perfect form, to express action unconnected with a subject.

267. INFINITIVES OF THE VERB CHOOSE.

ACTIVE VOICE.

Indefinite. [To] choose. Imperfect. [To] be choosing. Perfect. [To] have chosen. Perfect definite. [To] have been choosing.

PASSIVE VOICE.

Indefinite. [To] be chosen. Perfect. [To] have been chosen.

[Sidenote: To with the infinitive.]

268. In Sec. 267 the word to is printed in brackets because it is not a necessary part of the infinitive.

It originally belonged only to an inflected form of the infinitive, expressing purpose; as in the Old English, "Ut eode se saedere his saed to sawenne" (Out went the sower his seed to sow).

[Sidenote: Cases when to is omitted.]

But later, when inflections became fewer, to was used before the infinitive generally, except in the following cases:—

(1) After the auxiliaries shall, will (with should and would).

(2) After the verbs may (might), can (could), must; also let, make, do (as, "I do go" etc.), see, bid (command), feel, hear, watch, please; sometimes need (as, "He need not go") and dare (to venture).

(3) After had in the idiomatic use; as, "You had better go" "He had rather walk than ride."

(4) In exclamations; as in the following examples:—

"He find pleasure in doing good!" cried Sir William.—GOLDSMITH.



I urge an address to his kinswoman! I approach her when in a base disguise! I do this!—SCOTT.

"She ask my pardon, poor woman!" cried Charles.—MACAULAY.

269. Shall and will are not to be taken as separate verbs, but with the infinitive as one tense of a verb; as, "He will choose," "I shall have chosen," etc.

Also do may be considered an auxiliary in the interrogative, negative, and emphatic forms of the present and past, also in the imperative; as,—

What! doth she, too, as the credulous imagine, learn [doth learn is one verb, present tense] the love of the great stars? —BULWER.

Do not entertain so weak an imagination—BURKE.

She did not weep—she did not break forth into reproaches.—IRVING.

270. The infinitive is sometimes active in form while it is passive in meaning, as in the expression, "a house to let." Examples are,—

She was a kind, liberal woman; rich rather more than needed where there were no opera boxes to rent.—DE QUINCEY.

Tho' it seems my spurs are yet to win.—TENNYSON.

But there was nothing to do.—HOWELLS.

They shall have venison to eat, and corn to hoe.—COOPER.

Nolan himself saw that something was to pay.—E.E. HALE.

271. The various offices which the infinitive and the participle have in the sentence will be treated in Part II., under "Analysis," as we are now learning merely to recognize the forms.



GERUNDS.

272. The gerund is like the participle in form, and like a noun in use.

The participle has been called an adjectival verbal; the gerund may be called a noun verbal. While the gerund expresses action, it has several attributes of a noun,—it may be governed as a noun; it may be the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or a preposition; it is often preceded by the definite article; it is frequently modified by a possessive noun or pronoun.

[Sidenote: Distinguished from participle and verbal noun.]

273. It differs from the participle in being always used as a noun: it never belongs to or limits a noun.

It differs from the verbal noun in having the property of governing a noun (which the verbal noun has not) and of expressing action (the verbal noun merely names an action, Sec. II).

The following are examples of the uses of the gerund:—

(1) Subject: "The taking of means not to see another morning had all day absorbed every energy;" "Certainly dueling is bad, and has been put down."

(2) Object: (a) "Our culture therefore must not omit the arming of the man." (b) "Nobody cares for planting the poor fungus;" "I announce the good of being interpenetrated by the mind that made nature;" "The guilt of having been cured of the palsy by a Jewish maiden."

(3) Governing and Governed: "We are far from having exhausted the significance of the few symbols we use," also (2, b), above; "He could embellish the characters with new traits without violating probability;" "He could not help holding out his hand in return."

Exercise.—Find sentences containing five participles, five infinitives, and five gerunds.



SUMMARY OF WORDS IN -ING.

274. Words in -ing are of six kinds, according to use as well as meaning. They are as follows:—

(1) Part of the verb, making the definite tenses.

(2) Pure participles, which express action, but do not assert.

(3) Participial adjectives, which express action and also modify.

(4) Pure adjectives, which have lost all verbal force.

(5) Gerunds, which express action, may govern and be governed.

(6) Verbal nouns, which name an action or state, but cannot govern.

Exercise.

Tell to which of the above six classes each -ing word in the following sentences belongs:—

1. Here is need of apologies for shortcomings.

2. Then how pleasing is it, on your leaving the spot, to see the returning hope of the parents, when, after examining the nest, they find the nurslings untouched!

3. The crowning incident of my life was upon the bank of the Scioto Salt Creek, in which I had been unhorsed by the breaking of the saddle girths.

4. What a vast, brilliant, and wonderful store of learning!

5. He is one of the most charming masters of our language.

6. In explaining to a child the phenomena of nature, you must, by object lessons, give reality to your teaching.

7. I suppose I was dreaming about it. What is dreaming?

8. It is years since I heard the laughter ringing.

9. Intellect is not speaking and logicizing: it is seeing and ascertaining.

10. We now draw toward the end of that great martial drama which we have been briefly contemplating.

11. The second cause of failure was the burning of Moscow.

12. He spread his blessings all over the land.

13. The only means of ascending was by my hands.

14. A marble figure of Mary is stretched upon the tomb, round which is an iron railing, much corroded, bearing her national emblem.

15. The exertion left me in a state of languor and sinking.

16. Thackeray did not, like Sir Walter Scott, write twenty pages without stopping, but, dictating from his chair, he gave out sentence by sentence, slowly.



HOW TO PARSE VERBS AND VERBALS.

I. VERBS.

275. In parsing verbs, give the following points:—

(1) Class: (a) as to form,—strong or weak, giving principal parts; (b) as to use,—transitive or intransitive.

(2) Voice,—active or passive.

(3) Mood,—indicative, subjunctive, or imperative.

(4) Tense,—which of the tenses given in Sec. 234.

(5) Person and number, in determining which you must tell—

(6) What the subject is, for the form of the verb may not show the person and number.

[Sidenote: Caution.]

276. It has been intimated in Sec. 235, we must beware of the rule, "A verb agrees with its subject in person and number." Sometimes it does; usually it does not, if agrees means that the verb changes its form for the different persons and numbers. The verb be has more forms than other verbs, and may be said to agree with its subject in several of its forms. But unless the verb is present, and ends in -s, or is an old or poetic form ending in -st or -eth, it is best for the student not to state it as a general rule that "the verb agrees with its subject in person and number," but merely to tell what the subject of the verb is.



II. VERB PHRASES.

277. Verb phrases are made up of a principal verb followed by an infinitive, and should always be analyzed as phrases, and not taken as single verbs. Especially frequent are those made up of should, would, may, might, can, could, must, followed by a pure infinitive without to. Take these examples:—

1. Lee should of himself have replenished his stock.

2. The government might have been strong and prosperous.

In such sentences as 1, call should a weak verb, intransitive, therefore active; indicative, past tense; has for its subject Lee. Have replenished is a perfect active infinitive.

In 2, call might a weak verb, intransitive, active, indicative (as it means could), past tense; has the subject government. Have been is a perfect active infinitive.

For fuller parsing of the infinitive, see Sec. 278(2).

III. VERBALS.

278. (1) Participle. Tell (a) from what verb it is derived; (b) whether active or passive, imperfect, perfect, etc.; (c) to what word it belongs. If a participial adjective, give points (a) and (b), then parse it as an adjective.

(2) Infinitive. Tell (a) from what verb it is derived; (b) whether indefinite, perfect, definite, etc.

(3) Gerund. (a) From what verb derived; (b) its use (Sec. 273).

Exercise.

Parse the verbs, verbals, and verb phrases in the following sentences:—

1. Byron builds a structure that repeats certain elements in nature or humanity.

2. The birds were singing as if there were no aching hearts, no sin nor sorrow, in the world.

3. Let it rise! let it rise, till it meet the sun in his coming; let the earliest light of the morning gild it, and parting day linger and play on its summit.

4. You are gathered to your fathers, and live only to your country in her grateful remembrance.

5. Read this Declaration at the head of the army.

6. Right graciously he smiled on us, as rolled from wing to wing, Down all the line, a deafening shout, "God save our Lord the King!"

7. When he arose in the morning, he thought only of her, and wondered if she were yet awake.

8. He had lost the quiet of his thoughts, and his agitated soul reflected only broken and distorted images of things.

9. So, lest I be inclined To render ill for ill, Henceforth in me instill, O God, a sweet good will.

10. The sun appears to beat in vain at the casements.

11. Margaret had come into the workshop with her sewing, as usual.

12. Two things there are with memory will abide— Whatever else befall—while life flows by.

13. To the child it was not permitted to look beyond into the hazy lines that bounded his oasis of flowers.

14. With them, morning is not a new issuing of light, a new bursting forth of the sun; a new waking up of all that has life, from a sort of temporary death.

15. Whatever ground you sow or plant, see that it is in good condition.

16. However that be, it is certain that he had grown to delight in nothing else than this conversation.

17. The soul having been often born, or, as the Hindoos say, "traveling the path of existence through thousands of births," there is nothing of which she has not gained knowledge.

18. The ancients called it ecstasy or absence,—a getting-out of their bodies to think.

19. Such a boy could not whistle or dance.

20. He had rather stand charged with the imbecility of skepticism than with untruth.

21. He can behold with serenity the yawning gulf between the ambition of man and his power of performance.

22. He passed across the room to the washstand, leaving me upon the bed, where I afterward found he had replaced me on being awakened by hearing me leap frantically up and down on the floor.

23. In going for water, he seemed to be traveling over a desert plain to some far-off spring.

24. Hasheesh always brings an awakening of perception which magnifies the smallest sensation.

25. I have always talked to him as I would to a friend.

26. Over them multitudes of rosy children came leaping to throw garlands on my victorious road.

27. Oh, had we some bright little isle of our own!

28. Better it were, thou sayest, to consent; Feast while we may, and live ere life be spent.

29. And now wend we to yonder fountain, for the hour of rest is at hand.



ADVERBS.

[Sidenote: Adverbs modify.]

279. The word adverb means joined to a verb. The adverb is the only word that can join to a verb to modify it.

[Sidenote: A verb.]

When action is expressed, an adverb is usually added to define the action in some way,—time, place, or manner: as, "He began already to be proud of being a Rugby boy [time];" "One of the young heroes scrambled up behind [place];" "He was absolute, but wisely and bravely ruling [manner]."

[Sidenote: An adjective or an adverb.]

But this does not mean that adverbs modify verbs only: many of them express degree, and limit adjectives or adverbs; as, "William's private life was severely pure;" "Principles of English law are put down a little confusedly."

[Sidenote: Sometimes a noun or pronoun.]

Sometimes an adverb may modify a noun or pronoun; for example,—

The young man reveres men of genius, because, to speak truly, they are more himself than he is.—EMERSON.

Is it only poets, and men of leisure and cultivation, who live with nature?—Id.

To the almost terror of the persons present, Macaulay began with the senior wrangler of 1801-2-3-4, and so on.—THACKERAY.

Nor was it altogether nothing.—CARLYLE.

Sounds overflow the listener's brain So sweet that joy is almost pain.—SHELLEY.

The condition of Kate is exactly that of Coleridge's "Ancient Mariner."—DE QUINCEY.

He was incidentally news dealer.—T.B. ALDRICH.

NOTE.—These last differ from the words in Sec. 169, being adverbs naturally and fitly, while those in Sec. 169 are felt to be elliptical, and rather forced into the service of adjectives.

Also these adverbs modifying nouns are to be distinguished from those standing after a noun by ellipsis, but really modifying, not the noun, but some verb understood; thus,—

The gentle winds and waters [that are] near, Make music to the lonely ear.—BYRON.

With bowering leaves [that grow] o'erhead, to which the eye Looked up half sweetly, and half awfully.—LEIGH HUNT.

[Sidenote: A phrase.]

An adverb may modify a phrase which is equivalent to an adjective or an adverb, as shown in the sentences,—

They had begun to make their effort much at the same time.—TROLLOPE.

I draw forth the fruit, all wet and glossy, maybe nibbled by rabbits and hollowed out by crickets, and perhaps with a leaf or two cemented to it, but still with a rich bloom to it.—THOREAU.

[Sidenote: A clause or sentence.]

It may also modify a sentence, emphasizing or qualifying the statement expressed; as, for example,—

And certainly no one ever entered upon office with so few resources of power in the past.—LOWELL.

Surely happiness is reflective, like the light of heaven. —IRVING.

We are offered six months' credit; and that, perhaps, has induced some of us to attend it.—FRANKLIN.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

280. An adverb, then, is a modifying word, which may qualify an action word or a statement, and may add to the meaning of an adjective or adverb, or a word group used as such.

NOTE.—The expression action word is put instead of verb, because any verbal word may be limited by an adverb, not simply the forms used in predication.

281. Adverbs may be classified in two ways: (1) according to the meaning of the words; (2) according to their use in the sentence.

ADVERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO MEANING.

282. Thus considered, there are six classes:—

(1) Time; as now, to-day, ever, lately, before, hitherto, etc.

(2) Place. These may be adverbs either of

(a) PLACE WHERE; as here, there, where, near, yonder, above, etc.

(b) PLACE TO WHICH; as hither, thither, whither, whithersoever, etc.

(c) PLACE FROM WHICH; as hence, thence, whence, whencesoever, etc.

(3) Manner, telling how anything is done; as well, slowly, better, bravely, beautifully. Action is conceived or performed in so many ways, that these adverbs form a very large class.

(4) Number, telling how many times: once, twice, singly, two by two, etc.

(5) Degree, telling how much; as little, slightly, too, partly, enough, greatly, much, very, just, etc. (see also Sec. 283).

(6) Assertion, telling the speaker's belief or disbelief in a statement, or how far he believes it to be true; as perhaps, maybe, surely, possibly, probably, not, etc.

[Sidenote: Special remarks on adverbs of degree.]

283. The is an adverb of degree when it limits an adjective or an adverb, especially the comparative of these words; thus,—

But not the less the blare of the tumultuous organ wrought its own separate creations.—DE QUINCEY.

The more they multiply, the more friends you will have; the more evidently they love liberty, the more perfect will be their obedience.—BURKE.

This and that are very common as adverbs in spoken English, and not infrequently are found in literary English; for example,—

The master...was for this once of her opinion.—R. LOUIS STEVENSON.

Death! To die! I owe that much To what, at least, I was.—BROWNING.

This long's the text.—SHAKESPEARE.

[Sidenote The status of such.]

Such is frequently used as an equivalent of so: such precedes an adjective with its noun, while so precedes only the adjective usually.

Meekness,...which gained him such universal popularity.—IRVING.

Such a glittering appearance that no ordinary man would have been able to close his eyes there.—HAWTHORNE.

An eye of such piercing brightness and such commanding power that it gave an air of inspiration.—LECKY.

So also in Grote, Emerson, Thackeray, Motley, White, and others.

[Sidenote: Pretty.]

Pretty has a wider adverbial use than it gets credit for.

I believe our astonishment is pretty equal.—FIELDING.

Hard blows and hard money, the feel of both of which you know pretty well by now.—KINGSLEY.

The first of these generals is pretty generally recognized as the greatest military genius that ever lived.—BAYNE.

A pretty large experience.—THACKERAY.

Pretty is also used by Prescott, Franklin, De Quincey, Defoe, Dickens, Kingsley, Burke, Emerson, Aldrich, Holmes, and other writers.

[Sidenote: Mighty.]

The adverb mighty is very common in colloquial English; for example,—

"Mighty well, Deacon Gookin!" replied the solemn tones of the minister.—HAWTHORNE.

"Maybe you're wanting to get over?—anybody sick? Ye seem mighty anxious!"—H.B. STOWE.

It is only occasionally used in literary English; for example,—

You are mighty courteous.—BULWER.

Beau Fielding, a mighty fine gentleman.—THACKERAY.

"Peace, Neville," said the king, "thou think'st thyself mighty wise, and art but a fool."—SCOTT.

I perceived his sisters mighty busy.—GOLDSMITH.

[Sidenote: Notice meanings.]

284. Again, the meaning of words must be noticed rather than their form; for many words given above may be moved from one class to another at will: as these examples,—"He walked too far [place];" "That were far better [degree];" "He spoke positively [manner];" "That is positively untrue [assertion];" "I have seen you before [time];" "The house, and its lawn before [place]."



ADVERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO USE.

[Sidenote: Simple.]

285. All adverbs which have no function in the sentence except to modify are called simple adverbs. Such are most of those given already in Sec. 282.

[Sidenote: Interrogative.]

286. Some adverbs, besides modifying, have the additional function of asking a question.

[Sidenote: Direct questions.]

These may introduce direct questions of—

(1) Time.

When did this humane custom begin?—H. CLAY.

(2) Place.

Where will you have the scene?—LONGFELLOW

(3) Manner.

And how looks it now?—HAWTHORNE.

(4) Degree.

"How long have you had this whip?" asked he.—BULWER.

(5) Reason.

Why that wild stare and wilder cry?—WHITTIER

Now wherefore stopp'st thou me?—COLERIDGE

[Sidenote: Indirect questions.]

Or they may introduce indirect questions of—

(1) Time.

I do not remember when I was taught to read.—D. WEBSTER.

(2) Place.

I will not ask where thou liest low.—BYRON

(3) Manner.

Who set you to cast about what you should say to the select souls, or how to say anything to such?—EMERSON.

(4) Degree.

Being too full of sleep to understand How far the unknown transcends the what we know. —LONGFELLOW

(5) Reason.

I hearkened, I know not why.—POE.

287. There is a class of words usually classed as conjunctive adverbs, as they are said to have the office of conjunctions in joining clauses, while having the office of adverbs in modifying; for example,—

When last I saw thy young blue eyes, they smiled.—BYRON.

But in reality, when does not express time and modify, but the whole clause, when...eyes; and when has simply the use of a conjunction, not an adverb. For further discussion, see Sec. 299 under "Subordinate Conjunctions."

Exercise.—Bring up sentences containing twenty adverbs, representing four classes.



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

288. Many adverbs are compared, and, when compared, have the same inflection as adjectives.

The following, irregularly compared, are often used as adjectives:—

Positive. Comparative. Superlative.

well better best ill or badly worse worst much more most little less least nigh or near nearer nearest or next far farther, further farthest, furthest late later latest, last (rathe, obs.) rather

289. Most monosyllabic adverbs add -er and -est to form the comparative and superlative, just as adjectives do; as, high, higher, highest; soon, sooner, soonest.

Adverbs in -ly usually have more and most instead of the inflected form, only occasionally having -er and -est.

Its strings boldlier swept.—COLERIDGE.

None can deem harshlier of me than I deem.—BYRON.

Only that we may wiselier see.—EMERSON.

Then must she keep it safelier.—TENNYSON.

I should freelier rejoice in that absence.—SHAKESPEARE.

[Sidenote: Form vs. use.]

290. The fact that a word ends in -ly does not make it an adverb. Many adjectives have the same ending, and must be distinguished by their use in the sentence.

Exercise.

Tell what each word in ly modifies, then whether it is an adjective or an adverb.

1. It seems certain that the Normans were more cleanly in their habits, more courtly in their manners.

2. It is true he was rarely heard to speak.

3. He would inhale the smoke slowly and tranquilly.

4. The perfectly heavenly law might be made law on earth.

5. The king winced when he saw his homely little bride.

6. With his proud, quick-flashing eye, And his mien of kingly state.

7. And all about, a lovely sky of blue Clearly was felt, or down the leaves laughed through.

8. He is inexpressibly mean, curiously jolly, kindly and good-natured in secret.

291. Again, many words without -ly have the same form, whether adverbs or adjectives.

The reason is, that in Old and Middle English, adverbs derived from adjectives had the ending -e as a distinguishing mark; as,—

If men smoot it with a yerde smerte [If men smote it with a rod smartly].—CHAUCER.

This e dropping off left both words having the same form.

Weeds were sure to grow quicker in his fields.—IRVING.

O sweet and far from cliff and scar The horns of Elfland faintly blowing.—TENNYSON.

But he must do his errand right.—DRAKE

Long she looked in his tiny face.—Id.

Not near so black as he was painted.—THACKERAY.

In some cases adverbs with -ly are used side by side with those without -ly, but with a different meaning. Such are most, mostly; near, nearly; even, evenly; hard, hardly; etc.

[Sidenote: Special use of there.]

292. Frequently the word there, instead of being used adverbially, merely introduces a sentence, and inverts the usual order of subject and predicate.

This is such a fixed idiom that the sentence, if it has the verb be, seems awkward or affected without this "there introductory." Compare these:—

1. There are eyes, to be sure, that give no more admission into the man than blueberries.—EMERSON.

2. Time was when field and watery cove With modulated echoes rang.—WORDSWORTH.



HOW TO PARSE ADVERBS.

293. In parsing adverbs, give—

(1) The class, according to meaning and also use.

(2) Degree of comparison, if the word is compared.

(3) What word or word group it modifies.

Exercise.

Parse all the adverbs in the following sentences:—

1. Now the earth is so full that a drop overfills it.

2. The higher we rise in the scale of being, the more certainly we quit the region of the brilliant eccentricities and dazzling contrasts which belong to a vulgar greatness.

3. We sit in the warm shade and feel right well How the sap creeps up and blossoms swell.

4. Meanwhile the Protestants believed somewhat doubtfully that he was theirs.

5. Whence else could arise the bruises which I had received, but from my fall?

6. We somehow greedily gobble down all stories in which the characters of our friends are chopped up.

7. How carefully that blessed day is marked in their little calendars!

8. But a few steps farther on, at the regular wine-shop, the Madonna is in great glory.

9. The foolish and the dead alone never change their opinion.

10. It is the Cross that is first seen, and always, burning in the center of the temple.

11. For the impracticable, however theoretically enticing, is always politically unwise.

12. Whence come you? and whither are you bound?

13. How comes it that the evil which men say spreads so widely and lasts so long, whilst our good kind words don't seem somehow to take root and blossom?

14. At these carousals Alexander drank deep.

15. Perhaps he has been getting up a little architecture on the road from Florence.

16. It is left you to find out why your ears are boxed.

17. Thither we went, and sate down on the steps of a house.

18. He could never fix which side of the garden walk would suit him best, but continually shifted.

19. But now the wind rose again, and the stern drifted in toward the bank.

20. He caught the scent of wild thyme in the air, and found room to wonder how it could have got there.

21. They were soon launched on the princely bosom of the Thames, upon which the sun now shone forth.

22. Why should we suppose that conscientious motives, feeble as they are constantly found to be in a good cause, should be omnipotent for evil?

24. It was pretty bad after that, and but for Polly's outdoor exercise, she would undoubtedly have succumbed.



CONJUNCTIONS.

294. Unlike adverbs, conjunctions do not modify: they are used solely for the purpose of connecting.

Examples of the use of conjunctions:—

[Sidenote: They connect words.]

(1) Connecting words: "It is the very necessity and condition of existence;" "What a simple but exquisite illustration!"

[Sidenote: Word groups: Phrases.]

[Sidenote: Clauses.]

(2) Connecting word groups: "Hitherto the two systems have existed in different States, but side by side within the American Union;" "This has happened because the Union is a confederation of States."

[Sidenote: Sentences.]

(3) Connecting sentences: "Unanimity in this case can mean only a very large majority. But even unanimity itself is far from indicating the voice of God."

[Sidenote: Paragraphs.]

(4) Connecting sentence groups: Paragraphs would be too long to quote here, but the student will readily find them, in which the writer connects the divisions of narration or argument by such words as but, however, hence, nor, then, therefore, etc.

[Sidenote: Definition.]

295. A conjunction is a linking word, connecting words, word groups, sentences, or sentence groups.

[Sidenote: Classes of conjunctions.]

296. Conjunctions have two principal divisions:—

(1) Cooerdinate, joining words, word groups, etc., of the same rank.

(2) Subordinate, joining a subordinate or dependent clause to a principal or independent clause.



COOeRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.

297. Cooerdinate conjunctions are of four kinds:

(1) COPULATIVE, coupling or uniting words and expressions in the same line of thought; as and, also, as well as, moreover, etc.

(2) ADVERSATIVE, connecting words and expressions that are opposite in thought; as but, yet, still, however, while, only, etc.

(3) CAUSAL, introducing a reason or cause. The chief ones are, for, therefore, hence, then.

(4) ALTERNATIVE, expressing a choice, usually between two things. They are or, either, else, nor, neither, whether.

[Sidenote: Correlatives.]

298. Some of these go in pairs, answering to each other in the same sentence; as, both...and; not only...but (or but also); either...or; whether...or; neither...nor; whether...or whether.

Some go in threes; as, not only...but... and; either...or...or; neither...nor... nor.

Further examples of the use of cooerdinate conjunctions:—

[Sidenote: Copulative.]

Your letter, likewise, had its weight; the bread was spent, the butter too; the window being open, as well as the room door.

[Sidenote: Adversative.]

The assertion, however, serves but to show their ignorance. "Can this be so?" said Goodman Brown. "Howbeit, I have nothing to do with the governor and council."

Nevertheless, in this mansion of gloom I now proposed to myself a sojourn of some weeks.

[Sidenote: Alternative.]

While the earth bears a plant, or the sea rolls its waves.

Nor mark'd they less, where in the air A thousand streamers flaunted fair.

[Sidenote: Causal.]

Therefore the poet is not any permissive potentate, but is emperor in his own right. For it is the rule of the universe that corn shall serve man, and not man corn.

Examples of the use of correlatives:—

He began to doubt whether both he and the world around him were not bewitched.—IRVING.

He is not only bold and vociferous, but possesses a considerable talent for mimicry, and seems to enjoy great satisfaction in mocking and teasing other birds.—WILSON.

It is...the same whether I move my hand along the surface of a body, or whether such a body is moved along my hand.—BURKE.

Neither the place in which he found himself, nor the exclusive attention that he attracted, disturbed the self-possession of the young Mohican.—COOPER.

Neither was there any phantom memorial of life, nor wing of bird, nor echo, nor green leaf, nor creeping thing, that moved or stirred upon the soundless waste.—DE QUINCEY.



SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.

299. Subordinate conjunctions are of the following kinds:—

(1) PLACE: where, wherever, whither, whereto, whithersoever, whence, etc.

(2) TIME: when, before, after, since, as, until, whenever, while, ere, etc.

(3) MANNER: how, as, however, howsoever.

(4) CAUSE or REASON: because, since, as, now, whereas, that, seeing, etc.

(5) COMPARISON: than and as.

(6) PURPOSE: that, so, so that, in order that, lest, so...as.

(7) RESULT: that, so that, especially that after so.

(8) CONDITION or CONCESSION: if, unless, so, except, though, although; even if, provided, provided that, in case, on condition that, etc.

(9) SUBSTANTIVE: that, whether, sometimes if, are used frequently to introduce noun clauses used as subject, object, in apposition, etc.

Examples of the use of subordinate conjunctions:—

[Sidenote: Place.]

Where the treasure is, there will the heart be also.—Bible.

To lead from eighteen to twenty millions of men whithersoever they will.—J. QUINCY.

An artist will delight in excellence wherever he meets it. —ALLSTON.

[Sidenote: Time.]

I promise to devote myself to your happiness whenever you shall ask it of me.—PAULDING.

It is sixteen years since I saw the Queen of France.—BURKE.

[Sidenote: Manner.]

Let the world go how it will.—CARLYLE

Events proceed, not as they were expected or intended, but as they are impelled by the irresistible laws.—AMES.

[Sidenote: Cause, reason.]

I see no reason why I should not have the same thought.—EMERSON.

Then Denmark blest our chief, That he gave her wounds repose. —CAMPBELL.

Now he is dead, his martyrdom will reap Late harvests of the palms he should have had in life. —H.H. JACKSON

Sparing neither whip nor spur, seeing that he carried the vindication of his patron's fame in his saddlebags.—IRVING.

[Sidenote: Comparison.]

As a soldier, he was more solicitous to avoid mistakes than to perform exploits that are brilliant.—AMES.

All the subsequent experience of our race had gone over him with as little permanent effect as [as follows the semi-adverbs as and so in expressing comparison] the passing breeze.—HAWTHORNE.

[Sidenote: Purpose.]

We wish for a thousand heads, a thousand bodies, that we might celebrate its immense beauty.—EMERSON.

[Sidenote: Result.]

So many thoughts moved to and fro, That vain it were her eyes to close. —COLERIDGE.

I was again covered with water, but not so long but I held it out.—DEFOE.

[Sidenote: Condition.]

A ridicule which is of no import unless the scholar heed it.—EMERSON.

There flowers or weeds at will may grow, So I behold them not. —BYRON.

[Sidenote: Concession.]

What though the radiance which was once so bright Be now forever taken from my sight.—WORDSWORTH.